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A GRAMMAR 



GREEK LANGUAGE, 



USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 



CHARLES ANTHON, LL.D., 

JAY-PROFESSOR OF THE GREEK AND LATIN LANGUAGES IN COLUMBIA COLLEGE, 
NEW-YORK, AND RECTOR OF THE GRAMMAR-SCHOOL. 



NEW-YORK: 

HARPER & BROTHERS, 82 CLIFF-STREET. 
1 84 1. 






Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1838, by 

Charles Anthon, 
in the Clerk's Office of the Southern District of New- York. 



'R 181929 



■ 



THE REV. WILBUR FISK, D.D., 

PRESIDENT OF THE WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY, 

gfjts OTorfc is Krcscrtbetr 
AS A TRIBUTE OF SINCERE RESPECT 

TO ONE, IN WHOM HUMAN LEARNING IS SO ADMIRABLY BLENDED 

WITH THAT BETTER AND PURER KNOWLEDGE, WITHOUT 

WHICH IT IS COMPARATIVELY VALUELESS 



PREFACE. 



The author's object, in preparing the present work, was 
to furnish the student with such a view of the leading fea- 
tures in the Grammar of the Greek Language as might prove 
useful to him, not only at the commencement of his career, 
but also during its whole continuance. Nothing has there- 
fore been omitted, the want of which might in any degree 
retard his progress ; and yet, at the same time, the work 
has been brought within such limits as will render it easy 
of reference and not deter from perusal. The best and 
latest authorities have been carefully consulted, and every 
effort has been made to exhibit a concise outline of all the 
leading principles of Greek Philology. Under the head of 
Prosody the author has given merely a brief collection of 
rules, as the larger work on this subject, now in the press, and 
which will appear in a few weeks, will be found to contain 
all that is requisite in this department of instruction. To 
that same work the author has been compelled to transfer 
the remarks on the analogies of the Indo-Germanic tongues, 
which were originally intended to form part of the present 
volume. It was found, as the Grammar advanced towards 
its completion, that the addition of these analogies would 
A2 



make it too large in size ; and although a work like the 
present is certainly the true one for such a discussion, yet 
it is hoped that the remarks in question will not be out of 
place even at the end of a treatise on Greek Prosody. 

The present work, it will be perceived then, lays but 
few claims to originality either of design or execution. 
The object of the editor has been to present, in a small 
compass, all that his own experience as an instructor has 
shown him to be really useful in Greek elementary studies. 
His principal guide has been the excellent grammar of 
Matthise, of which the present volume may be in some re- 
spects considered as an abstract ; and valuable materials 
have been at the same time obtained from the labours o£y 
Buttmann, Rost, and other distinguished philologists. As 
regards the formation of the Greek verb, he has preferred . 
the old system to the more philosophical and elaborate 
one of Thiersch, from its being better adapted to the ca- 
pacities of younger students. Thiersch's system will do 
very well after an acquaintance with the formation of the 
Sanscrit verb, but its success otherwise, in this country 
at least, is extremely problematical. 

In preparing the present edition for the press, great pains 
have been taken to ensure accuracy, and in several in- 
stances changes have been made where the language ap- 
peared either obscure or wanting in precision. One or 
two inadvertences of expression, moreover, of no great 
moment in themselves, have also been rectified, and the 
work is now presented to the young student in the full as- 
surance that he will find in it both a useful and an accu- 
rate manual. 



The compiler of the present volume owes it to himself 
to state, that he intends, at no very distant day, to publish 
a Grammar of the Greek Language which will lay more 
claim to the character of an original work, and will be elu- 
cidated throughout by references to the Indo-Germanic 
tongues. Such a work, of course, will be intended for 
more advanced students. In the mean time, he hopes that 
the plain and unpresuming volume which he now puts 
forth will not be regarded as the "ultima Thule" of his 
own researches in Greek philology. 

Columbia College, June, 1839. 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Accents 7, 275 

Accusative 36 

, Syntax of . . 243 

Active Voice 

Adjectives 

Adverbs 194 

.Eolic Dialect 282 

Anapaestic Verse .... 270 

Apostrophe 10 

Article 19 

, Syntax of . . . 229 

Attic Dialect 283 

Augments 101 

Breathings 6 

Cases 18 

Changes of Letters ... 13 

Comparison 67 

Composition, Prosody of . 255 

Conjunctions 202 

Consonants . . . . . . 13 

Contracted Verbs .... 139 

Contraction 9 

Dative 37 

, Syntax of .... 241 

Declensions 20 

Deponents 138 

Dialects 281 

Digamma 7, 274 

Diphthongs 3 

Doric Dialect 282 



Elfiai, " I clothe myself 
~El/u, " I am" . 
El/it, " I go" . 
Hfiat, " I sit" . 
Enclitics . . 



Feet 

$7i[ii, " I say" . . 
First Aorist Active 

Passive 

Middle 

First Future Active 

Passive 

Middle 

Formation of the Tenses 



Genders 

Genitive, Syntax of . 



Iambic Verse . 
"lrjfit, " I send" 
Imperfect Active 



Active in fit 

Passive in fit 

Infinitive, Syntax of 
Ionic Dialect . . 
Irregular Nouns . 

Adjectives 

Verbs 

Verbs in fit 



Kelfiat, " I lie" 



PAGE 

164 
89 
158 
164 

279 

267 
167 
108 
116 
119 
108 
117 
119 
108 

18 
236 

269 
161 
108 
115 
156 
156 
245 
282 
43 
63 
170 
158 

165 



Letters 



Metres . . 
Middle Voice 



N added .... 
Nominative and Verb 

Noun 

Numbers . . . 
Numerals . . . 



Participle, Syntax of 
Parts of Speech 
Passive Voice . . 

, Syntax of 

Patronymics 
Perfect Active . 



■ Middle . 

Pluperfect Active . 
— — — — Passive 
— Middle . 



PAGE 

1 



268 
124 



231 
20 
18 

72 

247 

17 

95 

245 

47 

109 

115 

127 

110 

116 

118 



PAGE 

Prepositions 210 

Pronouns 78. 

Prosody 251 

Relative, Syntax of . . . 234 



Second Aorist Active 



-Middle . . 

- Active in /it . 

- Middle in fit . 



Second Future Active 



• Middle 



Substantive and Adjective 
Syntax 



Verbs 



in [it, . 

Vowels . . 



110 
117 
119 
156 
156 
111 
117 
119 
233 
229 



149 






GREEK GRAMMAR, 



I. THE ALPHABET. 1 



The Greek alphabet consists 
namely : 



of twenty-four letters, 



A, a, 


"AA(^a, 


Alpha, 


a. 


33, (5, 6, 


B?yra, 


Beta, 


b. 


r, y,r, 


Td;jfia, 


Gamma, 


& 


A, 6, 


Ae^ra, 


Delta, 


d. 


E, e, 


^EijilXov, 


Epsllon, 2 


e, 


z,£ 


Zrjra, 


Zeta, 


z. 


H, 7J, 


r Rra, 


Eta, 


a. 


e, #, e, 


QiJTa, 


Theta,- 


th. 


\,i, 


'Iwra, 


Iota, 


i. 


K,k, 


Karma, 


Kappa, 


k. 


A, A, 


Adfj,6da, 


Lambda, 


I. 


M, fi, 


Mv, 


Mu, 


in. 


N, v, 


Nv, 


Nu, 


n. 


x;i 


E£, 


Xi, 


X. 


0, o, 


'OflLKpOV, 


micron, 3 


o. 


II, n, 


m, 


Pi, 


p^ 


P,P, 


r P«, 


Rho, 


r. 


2, (7, (when final, $] 


i 4 2,iyfia, 


Sigma, 


s. 


T,r, 


Tav, 


Tau, 


t. 


T r v, 


™Til>lX6v, 


Upsilon, 5 


u. 


#,#* 


$7, 


Phi, 


pk 


x,%, 


X2", 


Chi, 


ch. 


■$', -0, 


*Z, 


Psi, 


ps. 


fl, 6), 


'"Q.fisya, 


Omega, 


6. 



1. Consult Excursus 1, at the end of this volume. 

2. Smooth, or unaspirated e ; so called to distinguish it from H, which 
was anciently one of the marks of the rough breathing, or aspirate. 

3. Small o, to distinguish it from omega (w), or great (i. e., long) o. 

4. The German scholars have introduced the practice of using c at 
the end of syllables likewise, when they make an entire word with which 
another is compounded ; as, Syg/nevr/c, slg^po, TcpogetTcov. But this 
practice, which has not even the authority of MSS. in its Tavour, cannot 
be systematically introduced without inconvenience to orthography ; and 
it is not agreeable to the genius of the ancients, who were not accustomed 
to separate, by the understanding, the different parts of discourse. 

5. Smooth v, to distinguish it from the aspirated v (T), which was 
one of the ancient signs of the digamma, and also passed into the Latin 
V, as, Vidi, Aivom. 



2 PRONUNCIATION. 

II. PRONUNCIATION OF THE LETTERS. 1 

A, when long, is sounded like the English a in far 
when short, like the a in fat. 

r, before a vowel, like the hard English g ; but before 
another y, and also before a ft, £%, is sounded like ng in 
sing. Thus, ayyeXoc. , pronounce ang-elos ; aynG)v> ang-kon, 
&c. 2 

E, like the short English e in met. 

Z, like a soft d passing gently into the sound of z. Thus, 
%d,G), pronounce d-zao ; fieXl^G), melid-zo, &c. 

H, like the English a in cane. 3 

G, like the English th in think. 

I, when long, like the English e in me ; when short, like 
the i in pin. 

T, like the French u in une, or the German u. 

X, always guttural, like the German ch in buch. 

ft, like the o in throne. 

PRONUNCIATION OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 4 
Ai, like the English adverb aye. 
Av, like the syllable ow in now. 
~El, like the English word eye. 

1. The pronunciation here given is that which has been adopted at the 
institution from which the present work emanates. It is by no means 
offered as accurate in every respect, but merely as giving, in some cases, 
an approximation to the ancient sound, and, in others, the result of mod- 
ern, though erroneous, usage. A separate work on this much-contested 
point will appear at no very distant day. 

2. The true sound of the y before a vowel would appear to have re- 
sembled that of the soft g in the German liegen. 

3. The 7j appears to have had, originally, a middle sound between a 
and e, and the grounds on which this opinion rests are as follows : 1 . 
The contraction of as and ea into rj ; as, xP^ £TaL -, XPV TaL i fae^c, £??c, 
reixea, T£(-XV, akrjdsa, ItXrjdrj. 2. The augment 7], q, and tjv, from a, ai, 
and. av ; as, tjkovov, yvsaa, and Tjvda. 3. The Doric and iEolic change 
of 7] into a ; as, <pa/j,a, Dor. for (prj^irj ; irvka, M,o\. for nvXrj. 

4. The primitive sound of the diphthongs appears to have been a-i, 
a-v, e-i, e-v, &c. The pronunciation of av is obtained from the barking 
of the dog (ai, av) in Aristophanes, Vesp., 903. The primitive sound 
of oi seems to have resembled the syllables owy in the word swowy, 
though, of course, with more of a diphthongal sound. 



DIVISION OF LETTERS. d 

Ev, like the English word yew. 

Oi, like the syllable oy in boy. 

Ov, like the oo in soon, or the ou in ragout. 

Ti, like the English pronoun we. 

III. DIVISION OF THE LETTERS. 

Seven of the letters are vowels, namely, a, e, r\, i, o, v, 
h). The remaining seventeen are consonants. 

1. Vowels. 

1. The seven vowels are divided into three classes, 
namely : short, long, and doubtful. Thus, 

Short, e, o, 
Long, 7], o), 
Doubtful, a, i, v. 

2. The short vowels are those, the pronunciation of which 
occupies the shortest possible time. 

3. The long vowels are those which require in their 
pronunciation twice as much time as the short. 

4. The doubtful are those which can be pronounced both 
as short and long in different words, being short in some 
words and long in others. 1 

2. Diphthongs. 

1. The vowels are combined in a variety of ways, two 
and two together, into one sound, and hence are formed the 
diphthongs. 

2. Diphthongs are formed by the union of a back-voweF 
{a, e, o) with a front-vowel {i, v), producing one sound. 

1. The student must not suppose, from the epithet " doubtful," as ap- 
plied to these vowels, that there is, in every case, something wavering 
and uncertain in their nature. The meaning is simply this : the short 
vowel e has its corresponding long vowel t], and the short vowel o its 
corresponding long vowel o ; but in the case of a, i, v, there is no sep- 
arate vowel-sign for the long and short quantities, and, therefore, the length 
or shortness of the vowel is to be determined, not by the eye, but by the 
application of some rule. 

2. The sounds of a, e, o, being formed by the organs in the back part 



4 DIVISION OF LETTERS. 

3. Of the diphthongs, six are proper, where both vowels 
are heard combined into one sound ; and six improper, 
where the sound of one vowel predominates over that of 
the other. 

4. The proper diphthongs are, therefore, at, av, ei, ev, ot, 
&v. The improper are a, %j, gj, where the i, or second vowel, 
is subscribed, and also r\v, vl, (ov, which last three are not 
of as common occurrence as a, y, w. 1 

3. Consonants. 

1. Of the seventeen consonants, nine are mutes, that is, 
letters whereof no distinct sound can be produced without 
the addition of a vowel. 

2. These nine are divided into three classes, namely, 
soft, intermediate, and aspirate. Thus, 

Three soft, n, k, t. 

Three intermediate, (3, y, d. 
Three aspirate, </), %, 6. 

3. These, when read perpendicularly, form the three 
orders of mutes, each soft consonant having its correspond- 
ing intermediate and aspirate. Thus, 

7T, /3, <j>. 

K > r> x- 

r, 6, d. 

of the mouth, may be called back-vowels ; and the sounds of i and v, be- 
ing formed in the front part of the mouth, may be denominated froni- 
vowels. 

1. Originally, the a, y, ct were closely allied to at, ei, oi, and only so 
distinguished, that, in the latter, a, e, and o were sounded of the same 
length with the i ; while, in the former, the long sound of a, e, and o pre- 
ceded, and the i merely followed as a short echo. This accurate pronun- 
ciation, however, appears to have been lost at an early period, even among 
the Greeks themselves, and therefore, at present, we pronounce a, y, a> 
in the same way as a, n, u ; and the subscribed or underwritten iota 
serves as a mere grammatical sign for determining the derivation and for 
distinguishing the forms. Originally, the i, even in these improper diph- 
thongs, was written by the side of the other sound, and in the use of cap- 
itals this practice still obtains. Thus we write a<5j](;, but "Aidrjg, passing 
over, in either case, the sound of the t. So, again, udrj, but, with tho 
capital letter, 'Quty. 



DIVISION OF LETTERS. 5 

4. Mutes of the same class must always come together, 
from a principle of euphony. Thus, 

INTERMEDIATE. SOFT. ASPIRATE. 

ebdofiog. enrd. (pdovog. 

oydoog. dfcroo. £%Qog- 

5. From the organs with which they are pronounced, n, 
(3, <p are termed labials or lip-letters ; k, y, %, gutturals ; 
and r, d, 6, dentals. 

6. Four of the consonants are called liquids, namely, A, 
\l, v, p ; and they are so denominated because, in pronunci- 
ation, they easily flow into other sounds. 

7. These four liquids, together with the sibilant, or hiss- 
ing letter c, are also called semivowels, because their sound 
can be pretty distinctly perceived without the accession of 
a vowel. 

8. There are three double consonants, namely, £, if, i/>, 
composed of any letter of each of the three orders of mutes, 
followed by c. Thus, 

7rc, (3g, (pg, form ip ; 

«?, r?, xsi form I; 

(re), dg, (6g), form J.« 

9. These double consonants are universally used (except 
in iEolic and Doric Greek) instead of their corresponding 
simple letters. Not, however, where the two simple letters 
belong to two different parts of the compound, as etc-oevo), 
not et-evo). 2 



1. The combinations re and dg are merely inserted to complete the 
analogy to the eye ; since C, is equivalent, in fact, to dg merely, and 
whenever a, r, or 6 comes before a, it is thrown away ; as, avvao for 
avvTGo, and Trelacj for midou. Sometimes, even in the case of cV, the 
same rejection takes place, as Epeiao for kpeidao), where C, could not oc- 
cupy the place of the characteristic letter (er) of the future. 

3. Yet 'Ad7/va& is used instead of 'Adqvacrde. 

A3 



BREATHINGS, 



IV. BREATHINGS. 



1. Every vowel, or diphthong, which is pronounced with- 
out a letter preceding it, is necessarily connected with a 
breathing, 

2. There are two breathings, the soft 1 and aspirate ; and, 
consequently, every word beginning with a vowel, or diph- 
thong, must be pronounced with one of these breathings. 

3. The. signs employed for these breathings are, for the 
soft ('), as asi, £% ; and for the aspirate ( f ), as vnsp, rj[xelg. 2 

4. The soft breathing has no perceptible power ; 3 the as- 
pirate is equivalent to the modern h } as vnep, pronounce 
huper. 

5. T at the beginning of words in the Attic dialect is al- 
ways to be pronounced with the aspirate ; as v&favOog, 
vdXog, v(3pig. 

6. In diphthongs the breathings are marked over the 
second vowel ; as ol, at, evOvg, avrog | because the breath- 
ing does not belong to either of the blended vowels separ- 
ately, but to the whole mingled sound. When, however, 
an improper diphthong has the iota adscribed, as in the 
case of capital letters, or, otherwise, subscribed, the mark 
of the breathing is placed by or over the initial vowel, as 
"Aiding, adr t g. 

7. P is the only consonant that receives a breathing, 
since it cannot be pronounced without an audible expiration. 
When p stands at the beginning of a word, therefore, this 
breathing is always the aspirate ; as peo), pvrog, which in 
Latin is placed after the R, as rhetor, from the Greek prjrcop, 

1. Called also " smooth," and by its Latin name lenis. 

2. Originally the rough breathing alone had a sign, namely, H, and 
the smooth remained unmarked. Afterward that sign was divided into 
two halves, and the first half, I, was employed to denote the aspirate, 
the second half, 1, the soft breathing. By a subsequent abbreviation of 
these, two other marks were formed, namely, [ and J, which finally 
changed into (') and ('), the signs now in use. 

3. It attaches itself to the sound pronounced, as if spontaneously, with- 
out any exertion of the lungs. 



DIGAMMA. 7 

8. But when a p is followed by another p, the first must 
have the soft breathing, and the latter the aspirate, as dp- 
pTjtcrog, eppeov ; for two of these letters could not be pro- 
nounced in succession each with an aspirate. 

V. DIGAMMA. 

1. Besides the rough breathing, there was in several di- 
alects another sound, somewhat similar in nature, formed 
between the lips, and having the same relation tof, ph, and 
v, that the aspirate bears to ch, g, and k. 

2. It was originally a full and strong consonant, and rep- 
resented by a letter closely resembling the Roman F. This 
letter was called digamma, because looking like a double 
gamma, and originally occupied the sixth place in the Greek 
alphabet. 

3. The term. JEolic digamma was given to it, because .it 
was retained in the alphabet principally by those branches 
of the Greek race that were of JEolic descent. Its true 
name, however, was Bav ( Vau), the other appellation hav- 
ing been invented by the grammarians. 

4. In the dialects which retained the digamma, its sound 
was soon softened down, and it then answered, in pronun- 
ciation, to the English wh. Between two vowels it was 
still more attenuated, and passed, even with the iEolians, 
into v ; as avrjp, aixbg, for ar\p, 7]0)g. 

5. In iEolic the digamma served also for the rough 
breathing, which had no place in that dialect. 1 

VI. ACCENTS. 2 
• 1. There are three accents in Greek; the acute, grave, 
and circumflex. 

2. The acute is denoted by the sign ('), as <pvXa^. The 

1. For some further remarks respecting the digamma, consult Excur- 
sus B, at the end of this volume. 
%. For a more enlarged view of accents, consult Excursus C. 



8 ACCENTS. 

grave is never marked, but lends its sign to trie softened 
acute. The circumflex is indicated by (~), as ttrjTrog. 

3. In every word there can be but one predominant tone, 
to which all the rest are subordinate. This is the sharp or 
acute accent, the fundamental tone of discourse being the 
grave. 

4. The grave accent, therefore, does not require any 
mark ; since, if the syllable which receives the strengthened 
accent be ascertained, we know that all the rest must have 
the weaker or fundamental one. Consequently, it would 
be superfluous to write Geddcopdc, since Qeodupog is suffi- 
cient. 

5. When a word which, by itself, has the acute accent 
on the last syllable, stands in connexion before other words, 
the acute tone is softened down, and passes more or less 
into the grave. This depressed accent is called the soft- 
ened acute? and is indicated by the mark of the grave, the 
strictly grave syllables having, as we have just remarked, 
no use for this sign, and lending it, therefore, to the soft- 
ened acute. Thus, opyrj 6e rtoXXa dpav dvaynd^ei Kana. 

6. The acute accent is placed on one of the last three 
syllables of a word, the circumflex on one of the last two. 

7. All words which have no accent on the last syllable 
are called Barytones, because a syllable neither marked by 
an acute nor circumflex accent has, of course, the grave 
tone (fiapvv rovov). 

8. All words which have the acute on the last syllable 
are called Oxytones ('Oifvrova, from 6%vg and rovog). 1 

1. The ancients observed, in pronunciation, both quantity and accent. 
This, however, is extremely difficult of accomplishment at the present 
day, and it is better for the learner, therefore, to let the quantity predom- 
inate, as being for us the more important of the two. Still, however, the 
student should accustom himself to distinguish every accented vowel 
from an unaccented one. Thus, for example, we can accent the first 
syllable in avdpoTroc, and yet keep the second long ; as in the English 
grandfather, alms-basket. Care must be taken, at the same time, not 
to prolong the accented short vowels ; as, for example, not to pronounce 
OTrep like fitfep* 



MARKS OF READING, 9 

VII. MARKS OF READING. 

1. For a period and comma the same signs are employed 
in Greek as in English. 

2. The colon and semicolon have one and the same mark, 
namely, a dot or point above the line ; as, erv<pXo)ae \ie % ical 
rv<pX6g el[M. 

3. A sign of interrogation has this form (;), as, ri tovto^ 
It is the same in appearance as our English semicolon, and 
not unlike our mark of interrogation inverted. 

4. No sign of exclamation occurs in the older editions, 
yet, after interjections, and terms indicative of feeling, it is 
well to put the one in use among us ; as, d> jjloi, tgjv irapov- 
ro)v fcatc&v ! (pev ! <pev ! 

5. Diastole, or hypodiastole, has the same sign as the 
comma, and is used in certain small compound words, to 
distinguish them from others ; as, o,tl (" whatever," formed 
from bang) for distinction sake from on (" that") ; and b,re 
(" which also") for distinction sake from ore (" when"). 

6. In place, however, of the diastole and hypodiastole, 
many of the more recent editions have merely the syllables 
of such words separate, and without the inserted mark ; as, 
b tl and 6 re, instead of b,n and b,re. This method is at- 
tended with less interruption than the other, and is, at the 
same time, equally perspicuous. 

7. A diaresis, or sign of separation, is put when two vow- 
els that follow in succession are not to be read as a diph- 
thong, but separately. It is indicated by two dots placed 
horizontally over the second one of the two vowels ; and, if 
the accent fall on that same vowel, the accentual mark is 
placed between the two dots. Thus, aidrjg (to be pro- 
nounced a-idf}c), rcpavg (to be pronounced rrpa-vg). 

VIII. CONTRACTIONS. 
1. Contractions are of two kinds, proper and improper, 
called, otherwise, synceresis and crasis. 



10 CONTRACTIONS. 

2. A proper contraction, or synaeresis, is when two sin- 
gle vowels, or open sounds, coalesce without change into 
one diphthong ; as, %%6'i contracted into ?'/%ot ; Tel%ei con- 
tracted into telxei. 

3. An improper contraction, or crasis, is when two single 
vowels coalesce, but are mixed together to such a degree 
that a vowel or diphthong of a different sound is substitu- 
ted ; as, Tti%Ea contracted into TEi%r\ ; 6 k\ioq contracted 
into ovyioq. 

4. Syllables contracted by crasis are long, and have com- 
monly a mark (') placed over them, indicative of its having 
taken place. Thus, rdyadd for rd dyadd ; rubra for rd 
avrd. 

5. If, in the process of contraction, a mute is brought be- 
fore an aspirated vowel, the mute is also aspirated ; as, 
ftovdarog for rov vdarog ; ^ol\idriov for rd l\idriov. 

6. The subscript iota ought never to appear in contrac- 
tions by crasis, unless it be found, previous to contraction, 
in the first syllable of the second word. Thus, Kara for 
ml slra ; and ey&da for eycb olda. But. icam for Kal em, 
not nam ; and nav for nal dv, not aav} 

IX. APOSTROPHE OR ELISION. 

1 . By apostrophe is meant the cutting off of a short vowel 
at the end of a word when the next word begins with a 
vowel ; and, when this takes place, it is indicated by the 
mark (') set over the empty space; as, err' k\iov for k,Ttl 

EflOV. 

2. "When the following word has the rough breathing, 
and the elided vowel was preceded by a smooth mute, this 
mute becomes aspirated ; as, d(p' ov for and ov. t 

3. The vowels elided by apostrophe are a, e, i, o, but not 
v. Monosyllables, however, in a, i., o (the epic pa ex- 

1 . Many editions of the ancient writers, and almost all the lexicons, of- 
fend against this rule. 



APOSTROPHE. 11 

cepted), and the i in the dative singular and plural of the 
third declension, are not elided. 

4. Neither does the i in ft and on suffer elision, except 
in the Homeric dialect. The reason with regard to ri is, 
that it might sometimes be confounded with re ; while, if 
the i in on suffered elision, 6V might be confounded with 
ore, and 66' with ode. 

5. The o in npo is not elided, and for that very reason is 
not used by the poets before a vowel. In composition, 
however, it coalesces with the augment, and with the initial 
vowel of the following word, and oe and oo are contracted 
into ov ; as, npovrvipev for irpoirvipev ; Trpovirrog for TTpoon- 
rog. 

6. The poets elided, though seldom, the diphthong at ; 
and only in the passive endings fiat, oat, rat, oQai ; as, 
(3ovkeod' s(pr), epxofi' l%uv. Of the elision of the diphthong 
oi no example is found in Homer and the epic poets. The 
Attics elided it only in olp? for ol\ioi before w, but not in 
p,oi and aoi. 

7. Since elision, by the suppression of vowels, evidently 
hurts, in some degree, distinctness of expression, it is gen- 
erally avoided in prose, so that even the slenderest sounds 
sometimes remain open. 

8. When the first word ends with a long vowel or diph- 
thong, and the second begins with a short vowel, this latter 
is elided by the Attic poets ; as, ttov 'ctlv for ttov eotlv ; 
f Epp7 '[iTTohale for f Epp7 ep,noXale. And, in prose writers, 
w 'yade for c5 dyade. 

9. In diphthongs, also, the first short vowel is cut oft 
after a long one in the preceding word, chiefly after rj ; as, 
7) 'vaedeta for rj evaedeca ; fir} 'vpcj for p,rj evpo). 

X. N h^eTiKvartKov. 

* 1. By v k(peXnvoTUt6v is meant v appended to certain 
final syllables, and it was so called because, as was erro- 



12 FINAL LETTFRS. 

neously supposed, this v did not belong to the termination, 
but was appended to the final vowel merely to prevent an 
hiatus (a word ending with a vowel and the next word be- 
ginning with one), and, therefore, drew, as it were, the sec- 
ond vowel to the first. 

2. In truth, however, this v is not, as is generally sup- 
posed, merely an invention for the sake of euphony, but be- 
longed to the ancient formation, and was first dropped be- 
fore a consonant as the language became softer. 

3. This v e(pe?wvGTCK6v is added (to adopt the language 
of grammarians) to datives plural mot, and, consequently, in 
|it and if)i ; to the third persons of verbs in e or i ; to the 
numeral eluooi, " twenty," and to the adverbs itepvot, rrav- 
rdnaat, voofyi, irpoode, ae, vv, when the following word be- 
gins with a vowel ; as, ev \ir\alv bXiyoig, Ttaocv elrrev eK.el- 
voig, ervipsv avrov, eikoglv errj yeyovcjg, &c. 

XI. OTHER FINAL LETTERS. 

1. The letter c is sometimes found at the end of words, 
on the same principle as the v efaXfcvorutov. , Thus, we 
have ovtg) before a consonant, and ovrog before a vowel.; 
So also in \i£%pig and &xpig, except that these two last often 
stand without c before a vowel. 

2. In like manner, the particle ov, " not," takes before a 
consonant a final k, and, consequently, before the rough 
breathing a final %. Thus, ov TrdpearLV, ova eveartv, ovx 

VTTEOTLV. 

3. When, however, this particle stands at the end of a 
clause, or where there is a pause in the sense, the n falls 
away ; as, rovro d' ov, " but this not" Ov- aW orav — , 
" No : but when — ." 

4. The preposition eif, " out of," has this form only be- 
fore vowels and before a pause ; as, e£ efiov, e$- brov, tca- 
k&v ei-. Before all consonants the c of the double letter |" 
(#c) falls away, and the fc remains ; as, etc rovrov, etc i9aA- 
doorjg, kit yr)g. 



CHANGES OF THE CONSONANTS. 13 



XII. CHANGES OF THE CONSONANTS. 

1. In the concurrence of two or more consonants, those 
of the same class can alone stand together, as has already 
been remarked. Hence an aspirated consonant can only 
be joined to an aspirate, a middle to a middle, a smooth to 
a smooth. In the formation of Greek words, therefore, we 
must change 

TETpibrai into rerptirrat. 

yeypatyrai " yeypairrac. 

pdrrdog " pd66og. 

emypd(f)67]v " E7Tiypd66rjv. 

etvttOtjv " erv(p07jv. 

rpiddrjoofMU " rpL(f)dr}OOfiai. 

XeXeyrai, " XeXeK-rat. 

(3e6pexTcu " (3e6pefcrac. 

otcdoog " bydoog. 

ettXek,6t}v " errXe^dTjV. 

\tyQr\oo\iai " Xexdrjoofiat,. 

In composition, however, the preposition ek remains un- 
changed before r, 6, 6, and hence we have endidovat, ek- 
Oelvac, &c. 

2. Three or more consonants cannot stand immediately 
together : but one of them (usually a a standing between 
two consonants) must be omitted, or such forms entirely 
avoided. Thus, 

Instead of rerv(f)ade we say rerv(f)$e. 

TTenXex^Oai, " ttettXexQcli- 
TETV<pvrat " TSTveparcu, or 

TETV\L\LEVOl Eiol. 

Exceptions. (1.) This rule does not operate in com- 
pounds, where perspicuity of derivation renders the reten- 
tion of the third consonant necessary ; as, ektttvg), ekgttev- 
6(jj, dvucpOapTog. (2.) If the first or last of the three con- 
sonants is a liquid (X, p,, v, p), whereby the harshness of 
pronunciation is softened ; as, ekkXtjolcl, TrEjj,(p6Eig, ofcXrjpog, 
dadfia, aioxpog. 

3. Two syllables following one another cannot both be- 
gin with an aspirate (</>, %, 6) ; but, in this case, the aspi- 
rated consonant which stands at the beginning of the first 
syllable is changed into its kindred smooth. Thus, 

B 



14 CHANGES OF THE CONSONANTS. 

For (f)e(f)tXi]Ka we say TrE(t>i?L7]iia. 

-dedvrjita " reOvrjica. 

Exceptions. (1.) The passive termination in $7)v, and all 
its derivative terminations which begin with $, have no in- 
fluence upon the preceding aspirate ; and thus we write, 
G)pdG)dr]v, £%v6t]v, -&(L(j)dT]<TovTcu, tipecpdrivai. In the verbs 
"&V8LV and TiQivai alone, # is changed into r before those 
terminations ; as, ervdr]V, ersdTjv. (2.) So also the adver- 
bial terminations $ev and $i ; as, iravraxodev, Kopcvdodc. 
(3.) In most compounds also the rule is neglected ; as, av- 
6ocf)6pog, e<pv(f)aivG). 

4. If the latter aspirate, which caused the change, dis- 
appear, the former resumes its proper shape ; thus, #d- 
<pog becomes rd(pog, " a grave? by the previous rule, but 
the verb is darrTG), " I bury." So rpscpo) makes tipe-ipo, 
in the future ; rpexo), -Bpei-G) ; rv(pG), Svipo) ; the presents 
of these verbs being changed by the previous rule from 
SpscpG), $pe%0), and tivcfrG). So also the noun #pt^, " hair" 
makes Tpi%oc. in the genitive (instead of the old form $pt- 
Xog) and &pii-i in the dative plural, where the aspirate re- 
appears. 

5. The rough breathing likewise disappears in the first 
syllable when x stands in the next. Thus, the old and 
genuine form of e^w was e%w, but the aspirate was changed 
into the smooth for euphony, and reappears when the % is 
no longer present, as in the future k'gd). 

6. When the rough breathing meets with a smooth, it 
changes the same into an aspirate, not only in composition, 
but, as has already been remarked, even in accidental con- 
currence ; as, ecfrodoc (from enl and odog), de^jtzepoc (from 
deuce and 7][j,epa), e</>' i]\iipav (for err' rjfiepav), &c. 

7. Aspirates are never doubled ; but, when two come to- 
gether, the first must be changed into its own smooth ; as, 
SarrcpG), not l,a<p(j)0) ; Bd^oc, not Bd^og ; 'Ardtg, not 'A#- 
Oig ; MarOalog, not Maddalog. 

8. The letter p in the beginning of a word is doubled 
whenever it is preceded by a vowel in composition or in- 
flection ; as, eppeO^v from pso) ; dpprjTog, irepcppoog, &c. 
After a diphthong, however, the single p remains ; as, ev- 
poog, evpvdfiog. 

9. Before p-, the labials (3, tf, <fi, i/> are changed into fi ; 



CHANGES OP THE CONSONANTS. 15 

as, for rerpcdfiac write rerpL/ijiai ; for rervTr/jiaL write re- 
Tv\i\iai ; for yeypa<piiat, yeypafifiat. Before the same let- 
ter, k and % are changed into y ; as, XeXey^ac for XeXex- 
jtmt ; dedoyfiat for dsdorciiai,. And the Unguals (5, #, r, £* 
are changed before the same into a ; as, ao\ia for g,d[ia ; 
ireTcetuiiai for ixe-xeiQimii ; r\vvo\iai for r\vvr\iai ; ^i](pia\ia 
for iprjcbi^iia. 

10. Before (7, the Unguals d, 0, r, £ are dropped ; as, for 
7rd<5<7£ write 7rd<7£ ; for ttXtjOog), ttXtjgg) ; for o6jj,ar(7i, o&- 
\jLaoi ; for apnd^GG), apudoG). 

11. The letter v, before the labials j3, jw, 7r, 0, -0, is 
changed into ^ ; as, epfiaXXo) (from ev and (3dXXo)), ov\i- 
rrpdooG) (from avv and npdaod)), &c. The same letter is 
changed into y before y, n, %, g (though pronounced as ng) ; 
as, eyyeXdd) (from ev and yeXdcS), ovyxalpo) (from ow and 
Xaipu), &c. 

12. If v comes before X or p, it is changed into X or p ; 
as, for owAoyt^o), ovvpiTrro), write (TvXAoyt^o), ayppinro). 

13. The letter v is usually thrown away before dor ^; 
as, for daifiovoL, ovv^vyta, write datfiooi, av^vyla. But 
the preposition ev before a and £ remains throughout un- 
changed ; as, evoelo), ev^eo\iai. On the other hand, the 
preposition ovv, before a followed by a vowel, changes v 
into a ; as, ovgoltlo,, ovooeLG), for ovvairia, avvaeto). 

14. When the letter v, and r, d, or 6 following, are to- 
gether rejected before a, then the vowel remaining, if short, 
is changed into a diphthong, namely, e into ec, and o into 
ov ; and, if a doubtful vowel, is lengthened. The long vow- 
els 7] and 0) remain unchanged. Thus, 

rvdtdevroL becomes rvcbdelai. 



onevddG) ' 


1 OTretGG). 


Xeovroi ' 


1 Xeovoc. 


TVTTTOVTOl ' 


' TVTTTOVOl, 


TVIpCLVTOL ' 


' TVIpdOL. 


yiyavroL " yiydat. 
deiitvvvTCL " SetKvvoL. 


TVTTTOVTOL ' 


' TVTTTiOGl. 



In some instances this alteration takes place when only i 
has been rejected ; as, eVc becomes elc ; TaAavc, ra/lac ; 
piXavg, [xeXdg. 



16 FIGURES AFFECTING SYLLABLES. 

XIII. FIGURES AFFECTING SYLLABLES. 

1. Prosthesis is the addition of one or more letters at the 
beginning of a word ; as, c\Linp6g for \iLKpog ; eeitcoot for 
eltcooi. 1 

2. Paragoge is the addition of one or more letters at the 
end of a word ; as, r\aBa for r\q ; XoyoiGiv for Xoyoig. 

3. Epenthesis is the insertion of one or more letters in 
the body of a word ; as, 7n-dAe/xoc for Trohepog ; dnTrorepog 
for onorepog. 

4. Syncope is the taking away of one or more letters 
from the body of a word ; as, repaog for reparog ; irarpog 
for rrarepog. 

5. Apharesis is the taking away of one or more letters 
from the beginning of a word ; as, el(3(o for Xecj3o) ; v\ for 
(pig or e<p7]. 

6. Apocope is the taking away of one or more letters 
from the end of a word ; as, Trap for napd ; dti for dtifia. 

7. Metathesis is the transposition of letters and syllables ; 
as, enpadov for snapOov, from irepOo) ; edpattov for edapnov, 
from depKG) ; Kpadla for tcapdla ; arap7r6(; for drpaTro^. 

8. Tmesis is the separation of the preposition of a com- 
pound from the verb by means of some other word interve- 
ning ; as, vrrep rtvd exstv for vnepexetv rcvd. 

XIV. DIALECTS. 2 

1. The principal dialects of the Greek language are four; 
the JEolic, Doric, Ionic, and Attic. 

2. The JEolic retained the most numerous traces of the 
early Greek, and hence the Latin coincides more with this 
than with the other dialects. It was distinguished from the 
Doric by trifling differences ; chiefly, however, by the use 

1. Most, if not all, of the examples of prosthesis are, in fact, old forms 
of the language. So also those of paragoge and epenthesis. 

2. For more particular remarks concerning the dialects, consult Ex- 
cursus D, and the observations at the end of each declension, &c. 



DIALECTS. 17 

of the digamma before vowels at the beginning and in the 
middle of words, and before some consonants, as p ; whereas 
the digamma was dropped by the Doric and other dialects. 

3. The Doric was hard, rough, and broad, particularly 
from the frequent use of a for 77 and 0) ; as, a Xdda for rj 
Xi]Qr\ ; rdv Kopav for rojv aopCyv ; and from the use of two 
consonants, where the other Greeks employed the double 
consonants ; as, fieXiaderat for [/.eXi^erai, &c, which was 
also the custom in iEolic. It was rudest among the Spar- 
tans, the enemies of all change, and was spoken in its great- 
est purity by the Messenians. 

4. The Ionic was the softest of all the dialects, on ac- 
count of the frequent meeting of vowels, and the rejection 
of aspirated letters. Thus, they said noieo) for ttolCj ; tvtt- 
reo for tvtttov ; deKOjiai for $£)(p\iai ; anaipeo) for cupaLpti 
Hence also it is fond of the hiatus, or confluence of vowel 
sounds, against which the Attic so carefully guards. 

5. The Attic was the most polished dialect, and forms 
the basis of our ordinary grammars. It avoided the colli- 
sion of vowel sounds, and was, therefore, fond of contrac- 
tions. It differed from the Ionic by using the long a where 
the Ionians employed the 77 after a vowel or the letter p, and 
by preferring the consonants with an aspirate, which the 
Ionians rejected. It employed, also, in its later stages, the 
double pp instead of the old pc, and the double rr instead 
of the hissing 00. 

XV. PARTS OF SPEECH. 

1. There are eight parts of speech in Greek, namely, Ar- 
ticle (apdpov), Noun (bvoiia), Adjective {enWerov), Pronoun 
(avrcjvvfiia), Verb (prj(xa), Adverb (s7npprjf.ia), Preposition 
(npoOeCLc), and Conjunction {avvdeo/xog). 

2. The Interjection is ranked among adverbs. 

3. The Article, Noun, Adjective, and Pronoun are de 

B2 



18 Parts op speech. 

clined by Genders (yevr]), Cases (nTUoeig), and Numbers 
(dptO^iol). 

4. There are three Genders; the Masculine (yevog ap- 
oevifcov), Feminine {&tjXvk6v), and Neuter (ovderepov) ; and 
to mark the gender the article is usually employed in gram- 
mar ; namely, 6 for the masculine, t\ for the feminine, and 
to for the neuter. Thus, 6 avdpG)nog, " the man ;" r\ yvvrj, 
* the woman ;" rb XPW a > " ^ thing" Some nouns, how- 
ever, are both masculine and feminine ; as, 6, r], tconvog, 
" the wild olive-tree." These are said to be of the common 
gender. 

5. There are three numbers, the Singular (aptdfibg evt- 
fcog), Dual {dvlitog), and Plural (nXTjOvvriKog). The sin- 
gular denotes one ; the plural more than one ; the dual, two, 
or a pair. 

6. There are five cases, the Nominative (iTT&Gtg ovofzaa- 
rinrj), Genitive (yeviftr}), Dative (Soriicrj), Accusative (aire- 
ariKfj), and Vocative {iikr\TiK,r\). 

7. The Greek name of the ablative would be acpcupeTi- 
K7], but the national grammarians of Greece do not make 
mention of this case, because in Greek its form is, in every 
instance, the same with the dative. 

GENERAL RULES. 

1. Nouns of the neuter gender have the nominative, ac- 
cusative, and vocative alike in all the numbers ; and these 
cases in the plural end always in a. 

2. The nominative and vocative plural are always alike. 

3. The nominative, accusative, and vocative dual are 
alike ; as also the genitive and dative. 

4. The dative singular in all three declensions ends in i. 
In the first two, however, the i is subscribed. 

5. The genitive plural ends always in uv. 



THE ARTICLE. 



19 



XVI. THE ARTICLE. 
1. The article is a word prefixed to a noun, and serving 
to ascertain or define it. Its declension is as follows : 







Singular. 








Masc. 


Fern. 


Neuter. 




Nom. 


6 


n 


TO 


the. 


Gen. 


TOV 


T1]C 


TOV 


of the. 


Dat. 


TGJ 


TXI 


rw 


to the. 


Accus. 


TOV 


TTjV 

Dual 


TO 


the. 


Nom. > 
Accus. ) 


T(x) 


rd 


TO) 


the two. 


Gen. 1 
Dat. \ 


Tolv 


ralv 
Plural. 


TOlv 


of or to the 
two. 


Nom. 


ol 


at 


TO, 


the. 


Gen. 


TG)V 


TGJV 


TGJV 


of the. 


Bat. 


ToZc 


rdig 


Tolg 


to the. 


Accus. 


rovg 


rag 


TO, 


the. 



REMARKS ON THE ARTICLE. 

1. The article was originally a demonstrative pronoun; 
but, in the later Ionic and Attic dialects, it became merely 
a means of denning nouns. 1 



1. In the older grammars two articles are given ; the prepositive, 6, 
7j, to, and the postpositive, bq, rj, 6, which we call, at the present day, 
the relative pronoun. In a sentence like the following, " This is the 
man who will deliver us" (Ovrog kcvLV 6 avrjp og aucei rjfiag), the two 
words " the" and " who" (6 and bq ) refer so intimately to each other, 
and lock, as it were, into one another so much like joints, connecting in 
this way the two clauses as members or limbs of one sentence, that the 
Greeks termed them apdpa, articuli, or joints. The first of these, how- 
ever, namely, 6, rj, to, stands very commonly with its simple clause 
alone, and is therefore, strictly speaking, in such instances no longer 
an article or joint. But this arises from the circumstance, that, in very 
many instances of this kind, the second clause is not expressed in words, 
out is left to be mentally supplied; such as, "who is spoken of," or 



20 NOUNS. 

2. There is no form of the article for the vocative, for w 
is an interjection. 

3. If the particles ye and 6e are annexed to the article, 
it has the signification of the pronoun " this," but the de- 
clension remains the same. Thus, ode, r\de, rode, genitive 
rovde, rfjode, rovde, &c. 

4. In the early Greek the article was rog, rr\, to, and 
hence arise the plural rot, rat in Doric and Ionic, and the 
r. in the neuter and the oblique cases. 

XVII. NOUNS. 

1. The Declensions (tcXiGecg) of nouns are three, corre- 
sponding to the first three declensions in Latin. 

2. The First Declension has four terminations : two fem- 
inine, a and t\ ; and two masculine, ag and rjg. 

3. The Second Declension has two terminations, og and 
ov. Nouns in og are generally masculine, sometimes femi- 
nine ; nouns in ov are always neuter. 

4. The Third Declension ends in a, i, v, neuter; 0) fem- 
inine ; and v, £, p, a, ip, of all genders ; and increases in 
the genitive, 

XVIII. FIRST DECLENSION. 

Terminations. 



n¥* 



5 > masculine. 

m 5 



1. Nouns in pa and a pure, that is, a preceded by a 
vowel, together with some proper names, as Arjda, 'Av- 
dpojieda, ^iXofirjXa, b.iori\ia, and also the substantive dXa- 
Xd, " a war-cry," have the genitive in ag, and retain their 
a through all the cases of the singular. 

" who is here concerned," or " whom you know," &c. Hence it "became, 
by degrees, a usage of the language to annex the prepositive article 6, ^, 
to by itself to every object which is to be represented as definite, either 
by means of the language itself or from the circumstances. In their 
whole theory, however, the two articles are adjective pronouns. (Butt- 
manri's larger Grammar, p. 121, Robinson's transl.) 



FIRST DECLENSION. 



21 



2. All the contracted nouns of this declension likewise 
retain the a in the genitive and other cases of the singular ; 
as, fiva, [iv-dg, &c. ; 'AOrjvd, 'A6r]v-ag, &c. 

3. All other nouns in a have the genitive in Tjg, and da- 
tive in xi ; but in the accusative and vocative they resume 
their a. 

4. Nouns in tj retain the r\ throughout the singular num- 
ber, making the accusative in tjv, and the vocative in tj. 



Singular. 
N. ri r/uep-a, 
G. rrjg quep-ag, 
D. rrj T]fiep-a, 
A. TTjv quip-av, 
V. 7/fiep-a. 



Examples. 
t) rjjxepa, " the day? 

Dual. 
N. ra, r)(j.£p-a, 
G. ralv Tfuep-acv, 
D. ralv 7]^L£p-aiv, 
A. ra rjfiep-a, 
V. ijfiep-a. 



Plural. 
N. at yusp-ai, 
G. r&v rjuep-uv, 
D. ralg rjuep-aig 
A. rag rjuep-ag, 
V. 7]\iip-ai. 



Singular. 

N. rj cofyi-a, 
G. rfiQ ao&i-ag, 
D. ry ao(j>t-a, 
A. rrjv co<j)t-av, 
V. coipt-a. 



Singular. 
N. 7j 66!--a, 
G. rrjg 66^-vg, 
D. ry dog-y, 
A. rrjv 66t;-av, 
V. 66^-a. 



7] co(j)La, " wisdom? 

Dual. 

N. ra co<pl-a, 

G. ralv co§i-aiv, 

D. ralv ao(j)i-aiv, 

A. ra co(f)i-a, 

V. oo<pl-a. 

7) do$a, "the opinion.' 

Dual. 
N. ra 66^-a, 
G. ralv dotj-aiv, 
D. ralv dog-aiv, 
A. ra 66^-a, 
V. 66%-a. 



Plural. 
N. al cofyi-ai, 
G. r&v ao(pi-uv, 
D. ralg aocpc-aig, 
A. rag cocpi-ag, 
V. aopi-at. 



Plural. 
N. al 66^- ac, 
G. rtiv dot;-uv, 
D. ralg dog-aig, 
A. rag 66^-ag, 
V. dog-ai. 



Singular. 
N. rj K£(j>a?L-7/, 
G. ryg Keipah-yg, 
D. ry Ke<pa?<,-y, 
A. rrjv Kt^aTi-r/v, 
V. tcedaX-y. 



r) fte(paXi), " the head." 

Dual. 
N. ra K£<paX-a, 
G. ralv K£§aX-alv, 
D. ralv K£<pa2,-alv, 
A. ra netiaX-a, 
V. Ke<pa7i-d. 



Plural. 
N. al K£<pa2,-at, 
G. r&v Ke(j>a?i-£)v, 
D. ralg tceipal-alg, 
A. rag KEtpal-dg, 
V. Ke<ba?,-ai. 



22 



FIRST DECLENSION. 



Decline 



Like Tjfiepa, 
dvpa, a door, 
'idpa, a seat, 
ayopd, a market-place, 
uyKvpa, an anchor, 
yecpvpa, a bridge. 

Like 661-a, 
yTiCJoca, a tongue, 
diipa, thirst, 
rrelva, hunger, 
■&aXaa<ya, a sea, 
pi^a, a root, 
afiiXka, a contest. 



Like cotyia, 
OLKua, a house, 
aula, a shadow, 
(piMa, friendship, 
atria, a cause, 
akr}Qeia, truth. 

Like K£<l>a%rj, 
ko/j,tj, hair, 
(puvij, a voice, 
66n, a song, 
vefysXrj, a cloud, 
aeTirjvn, the moon, 
TLjurj, honour. 



5. Nouns in ag make the genitive in ov, and the dative 
in a, and the remaining cases like those of rj^epa. 

6. Nouns in rjg make the genitive in ov, the accusative 
in 7]v, and the vocative in r\, and the rest like ?]fispa. 

Examples. 



Singular. 
N. 6 veavi-ag, 
G. rov veavi-ov, 
D. to veavi-a, 
A. rov veavc-av, 
V. veavi-a. 



6 veaviag, " the youth" 
Dual. 

N. to veavi-a, 
G. rolv veavi-aiv, 
D. rolv veavi-aiv, 
A. to veavi-a, 
V. veavi-a. 



PluraL 
N. ol veavi-ai, 
G. ruv veavc-uv, 
D. roic veavi-aic, 
A. rovg veavi-ag, 
V. veavi-ai. 



Singular. 
N. 6 re\£)v-r}Q, 
G. rov reX6v-ov, 
D. to rekuv-n, 
A. rov reluv-nv, 
V. reX6v-7]. 



6 reWv7]g, " the tax-gc 
Dual. 

N. to reXuv-a, 
G. rolv reX6v-atv, 
D. rolv re7iC)v-aiv, 
A. to reX6v-a, 
V. reluv-a. 



therer." 

Plural. 

N. ol reXdv-at, 

G. tox> re^wv-wv, 

D. role. re?i6v-aic, 

A. roiif rehuv-ag, 



Like veaviag, 
fioviag, a solitary, 
rajiiag, a steward, 
tcox^iag, a snail, 
Alveiag, Mneas, 
Hvdayopag, Pythagoras, 
'Avagayopag, Anaxagoras. 



Decline 

Like rekdviqg, 
aKivaung, a short sword, 
Xecporexvrjg, a workman, 
aiyQdijXng, a goat-sucker, 
eXXnvodcKng, a judge at the games, 
'Arpeidng, Atrides, 
'Ayxlong, Anchises. 



FIRST DECLENSION. 



23 



7. Nouns in rijg, compounds in m]g ; as, fcvvcon^g, " an 
impudent person ;" names indicative of nations ; as, ILeporjg, 
" a Persian" Etcvd'ng, " a Scythian ,*" together with deriv- 
atives from [lerpoj, ttcjXcj, and rpi6o), as, yeofierprjg, " a ge- 
ometer," fivpoTr&Xrjg, "a vender of perfumes" TTaidorpcdrjg, 
" a teacher of gymnastics" make the vocative singular in a, 
not in ?/. Thus, KVVG)7T7]g, voc. Kwoyrrd ; ILeparjg, voc. Ilep- 
(7a. But ILeparjg, a man's name (Perses), makes ?;. 

8. Nouns in crr^c have ?? or a in the vocative ; as, Xrjarf)g f 
" a robber" voc. Xrjarf) or Xrjard. 

CONTRACTIONS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. 

1. In forming these contractions, ea preceded by p, and 
also aa, make a ; as, epea, contracted epd, " wool ;" fivda, 
\ivd, " a mina" (3opeag, (3oppag, " £Ae wor^ windy 

2. But ea not preceded by p, together with erj and o?;, 
become r) ; as, yea, yfj, " the earth ;" yaXerj, yaXij, " a wea- 
se/;" diirXorj, dcnXr), " double;" f Epf*eac, 'Ep^c, "Mercu- 
ry ;" 'AneXXerjg, 'A.ireXXrjg, " Apelles." 

3. In the genitive, ov absorbs the preceding vowel ; as, 
'Epjxeov, 'Epuov. 



Examples. 
e*pea, contr. epa, " wool" 



Singular. 


Dual. 


Plural. 


N. epe-a, ep-2, 
G. epe-ac, zp-dc, 
D. epe-a, ep-a, 
A. epe-av, kp-dv, 
V. epe-a, ep-a. 


N. epe-a, 
G. epe-aiv, 
D. epe-aiv, 
A. epe-a, 
V. epe-a. 


N. epe-ai, ep-al, 
G. epe-uv, ep-uv, 
D. epe-aic, ep-alc, 
A. epe-ac, ep-dc, 
V. epe-at, kp-al. 


yaAe^ 


, contr. yaXr), " a weasel" 


Singular. 


Dual. Plural. 


N. yake-n, ya?.-?i, 
G. yake-vc, yak-rjc, 
D. yaki-w, yak-Hj, 
A. yake-rjv, yak-rjv, 
V. yake-7), yak-jj. 


N. yake-a, yak-d, 
G. yake-aiv, yak-alv, 
D. ya?J-aiv, yak-alv, 
A. yake-a, yak-d, 
V. yake-a, yak-d. 


N. yake-ai, yak-al, 
G. yake-uv, yak-tiv, 
D. yake-aic, yak-ale, 
A. ya/le-af, ya/l-df, 
V. yake-ac, yak-dX. 



24 DIALECTS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. 



DIALECTS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. 

1. Instead of the terminations 77c and ag of the nomina- 
tive singular, the iEolians employed a. Hence iroirjTrig 
and veavlag become, in iEolic Greek, noirjrd, veavia. So 
also we have in the same dialect the Homeric nominatives, 
\ir\riird, v£(f)eX7]jepsrd, evpvoird, &c. From this source 
comes the Latin nominative singular of the first declension, 
poetd, cometa, &c. 

2. The iEolians made the genitive singular end in dig, 
and also in ag, which latter form was common unto them 
with the Dorians. Thus, 7\\iipdLg for rjfiepag ; doi-ag for 
So^rjg, from the iEolic nominative 36£;a. From the genitive 
in dig the Latins derived, by dropping the final c, their old 
genitive of the first declension in a'i, as musai, auldi, terrdi, 
which afterward changed to <b. The other genitive, name- 
ly, that in ag, gave rise to another early form of the genitive 
in Latin, that in as, which still remains in paterfamilias, 
mate? •familias, &lc. 

3. The iEolians used in the genitive plural dov instead 
of G)v, and in the accusative plural they had aig for ag. 
Thus, [isXt-Godoov for \izXiaadv ; icaXalg, oocpalg, for tcaXag, 
ao(f)dg. 

4. The Dorians employed the broad a in the termination 
as well as other parts of the nominative and oblique cases. 
Thus, (f)r)iJ,r], Doric (pdjid ; vv\L§r\, Doric vvfj,(pd ; ^tj^tjv ; 
Doric (pdfiav, &c. 

5. The Dorians give nouns in ag the genitive in a ; as, 
Alvelag, gen. Alveid ; Urj Xeidag, gen. HrjXetSd. This gen- 
itive is formed by contraction from do ; thus Alveido, con- 
tracted Alvecd ; HrjXeiddo, contracted ILrjXeidd. So, also, 
in the plural, they contracted dtov into dv, saying for MeXc- 
dov, MeXtdv ; for -&7]XvTepdG)v, -&7jXvrepdv, &c, where the 
Ionic has eov, and the Attic <ov. 

6. The Ionians changed the long a of this declension 
into 7] ; as, aocbtr], ^fieprj, VEr\vi7\g, &c. ; very seldom, how- 
ever, the short a. The Ionians also changed ov of the 
genitive singular into so), and o>v of the genitive plural into 
ecov ; thus 'Arpeidecj for 'Arpetdov ; ttol7]t£g) for izocrjTOv ; 

K0ll7]T£G)V for fCOflTjTGJV ; lfteT6G)V for ItlETCdV. 

7. The Ionians employed the termination ea instead of 
t]v in the accusative singular of nouns in r\g ; as, deanorea 
for dscTroT-qv ; Kafi&voea for Ka\i§vo7]v. So in the accusa- 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



25 



tive plural they used sag for ag \ as, dearroreag for dea- 
norag. 

8. The Ionians, in the Dative plural, employed yet for 
aig as, decnor^ai for deorcoTcug ; vqoLUT'noL for vnoi&raig 

XIX. SECOND DECLENSION. 

Terminations. 

og, masculine, sometimes feminine. 
ov, always neuter. 1 





Examples. 








6 Xoyog, " £^e discourse." 




Singular. 


Dwa£. 






Plural. 


N. 6 Xdy-oc, 


N. to) Xoy-u, 




N. 


oi 16y-oi, 


G. row /\.dy-ov, 


G. rotv /loy-oiv, 




G. 


tuv Xoy-uv, 


D. r<p /ldy-o, 


D. Tolv hoy-ocv, 




D. 


toZc; ?.6y-ocg, 


A. rdv 2dy-ov, 


A. rw X6y-o), 




A. 


tovq loy-ovc, 


V. My-e. 


V. "koy-u. 




V. 


"koy-oi. 




i] bdog, " £/*e way." 






Singular. 


JWZ. 






Plural. 


N. j? 6d-dV, 


N. to: 6<5-(5, 




N. 


at 66-oc, 


G. rye 66-ov, 


G. raa> od-Oiv, 




G. 


tuv 66-cJv, 


D. 777 6d-<p, 


D. ralv 66-olv, 




D. 


ralq 66-olq, 


A. r^v 6d-dv, 


A. ra 66-6, 




A. 


rag 66-ovg^ 


V. 66-L 


V. 6d-c5. 




V. 


66-oi. 


< 


ro da5pov, " the 


gift: 


> 




Singular. 


Dual. 






Plural. 


N. rd dtip-ov, 


N. ra) 66p-u, 




N. 


ra 6&p-a, 


G. roti dtip-ov, 


G. ro£V 66p-oiv, 




G. 


tuv 66p-o)v, 


D. T<3 dtip-u, 


D. roa> 66p-oi,v } 




D. 


roig 66p-oLg, 


A. to dtip-ov, 


A. TO) 6o)p-G), 




A. 


ra, 6tip-a, 


V. dup-ov. 


V. 66p-cj. 




V. 


6fip-a. 



1. Except in diminutives of female names, where, by a species of sy- 
nesis, the gender refers to the person meant, not to the termination of 
the noun. Thus, 1) Thvuepiov, from T?^vK£pd ; ij Aeovnov, &c. So in 
Terence, " mea Glycerhim." 

c 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



Decline 



Like loyog, 
S/j/xog, a people, 
Kvptog, a master, 
" avdpuirog, a man, 
adeltyog, a brother, 
viog, a son, 
avsfiog, a wind, 
ay/slog, a messenger, 
vojiog, a law, 
oltiog, a house, 
olvog, wine. 



Like dupov, 
devdpov, a tree, 
£v?iov, wood, 
' '~~bpyavov, an instrument, 
epyov, a ivork, 
pvffkov, an apple, 
Ttpoftarov, a sheep, 
£uov, an animal, 
tekvov, a child, 
fiodov, a rose, 
cvkov, a jig. 



Like 666g, 
afnreXog, a vine, 
vfjaog, an island, 
voaog, a disease, 
GTiodog, ashes, 
7rap6evog, a maiden, 
(3i(31og, a book. 

1. Many words of this declension have a double gender, 
as something masculine or feminine is denoted by them ; 
as, o $e6g, the god, r) #£<5c, the goddess ; 6 dvdpwirog, the 
man, t) dvOponog, the woman ; 6 dpurog, the he-bear, r) apu- 
rog, the she-bear, &c. 

2. Others, again, have a double gender, without such 
ground ; as, 6, r), ptvog, the shin ; 6, r\, tidfivog, the shrub; 6, 
7], 6dp6irog, the lyre ; 6, r), ol\iog, the path, &c. 

3. Some with the gender alter likewise the meaning ; 
as, 6 %vyog, the yoke, r) %vyog, the balance ; 6 Innog, the horse, 
7] Irnrog, the cavalry, and also the mare ; 6 XeraOog, pulse-broth, 
7] Xetctdog, the yolk of an egg. 

4. The following become neuter in the plural : 



6 (36orpvxog, 


the curl, 


rd (Soorpvxa. 


6 deofjiog, 


the chain, 


rd decrfid. 


6 deo/wg, 


the law, 


rd -&eofid. 


6 di(ppog, 


the chariot-seat, 


rd di(f)pa. 


t) fceXevdog, 


the way, 


rd KsXsvda. 


6 Xvxvog, 


the torch, 


rd Xv^va. 


b airog, 


the corn, 


rd air a. 



ATTIC FORM OF DECLENSION. 



27 



5. The vocative singular has not only e, but likewise og 
for a termination. Thus, 6 -&eog, voc. g5 tieog. So, also, 
c5 (ptMg, &c. This is particularly the case in the Attic di- 
alect. 






ATTIC FORM OF DECLENSION. 1 

1. The Attic form of declension makes the vocative like 
the nominative, and has w in the termination of every case. 

2. The final v is often omitted in the accusative singu- 
lar ; as, Xaycj for Xaydov ; yew for veuv ; eco for eW. This 
is particularly the case in proper names ; as, Ka>, Kew, 
Te(x>, "AOo), for K&v, Ksg)v, &c. 







Examples. 








3 Xay&g, " the hare.'' 






Singular. 


Dual. 


Plural. 


N. 


6 "kay-uq, 


N. to ?,ay-6, 


N. ol 2,ay-6, 


G. 


tov Xay-6, 


G. toZv Xay-&v, 


G. tov ?<.ay-o)v, 


D. 


tcj ?\,ay-ti, 


D. toIv Xay-6jv, 


D. tol£ ?My-o)?, 


A. 


tov Xay-6v, 


A. TO) ?M}-d), 


A. Tovg Tiay-oog, 


V. 


?My-6g. 


V. ?My-6. 


V. 2,ay-o). 




to dvc 


oyeo)v, " the dining- 


room." 




Singular. 


Dual. 


Plural. 


N. 


to dv6ye-o)v, 


N. to) avoys-o, 


N. tcl av6ye-o, 


G. 


tov avcoye-o), 


G. toIv avuye-ov, 


G. to)v avo)ye-o)v, 


D. 


Tib avojye-G), 


D. toIv av6ye-o)v, 


D. TOig avo)ys-o)g, 


A. 


to avtoye-uv, 


A. to) av6ye-o), 


A. to, avuye-o, 


V. 


avtoys-wv. 


V. avuye-o). 


V. dvuye-u. 



1. The neuters of some adjectives have also w in the 
nominative and accusative, especially ayrjpteg, neuter ayf\- 
po). 

2. Words, which otherwise belong to the third declen- 
sion, are often declined after this particular form ; as, MiVw 

1. Buttmann calls this an old and peculiar mode of inflection, em- 
ployed by the Attics (Ausf. SprachL, p. 157). Thiersch, on the con- 
trary (G. G., § 53, 4), maintains, that these forms arise merely from the 
rejection of the formal letters o, e, a after the vowels contracted into e&>» 
Buttmann's opinion is undoubtedly the true one, 



28 CONTRACTIONS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 

(from M.LV(og, Mtvcoog) for M.tvo)a in the accusative. So, 
also, yeXov (from yeAcoc, yeXorog) for yeXcjra ; and T/pwj* 
(from r\puq, ?/pwoc) for r\pcda. 

3. Only one neuter in o)g is assigned to this form of de- 
clension, namely, rb xpeoyg, the debt. According to the an- 
cient grammarians, it has %p&ug not only in the accusative, 
but also in the genitive singular. All the other parts are 
formed from %p£og ; thus pi. %p£cb, &c. 

CONTRACTIONS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 

1. The letters eb, 6e, and 6o become ov ; as, adeX<pt,deog 
contracted adeX<pidovg ; voe, vov ; voog, vovg. 

2. A short vowel before a long one, or a diphthong, is 
absorbed ; as, ttXocjv, tzXgjv ; ttXoolv, ttXoZv. 

3. In the neuter, a absorbs the preceding vowel, and be- 
comes long ; as, oarsa, bard. 

4. In the vocative, ee is not contracted ; as, adeX(j)cdee. 



Singular. 
N. 6 vo-og, vovg, 
G. TOV vo-ov, vov, 
D. r<3 vo-o), v£>, 

A. TOV VO-OV, VOVV, 

V. vo-s. vov. 



Examples. 

o voog, contracted vovg, " the mind. 

Dual. 



N. rib vo-o, v&, 

G. toIv vo-oiv, volv, 

D. toIv vb-oiv, volv, 

A. tg) vo-u, vu, 

V. vo-o, v£>. 



Plural. 
N. ol vo-ol, vol, 
G. TUV vo-ov, v&v, 
D. Tolg vo-oig, volg, 
A. rovg vo-ovg, vovg, 
V. vo-ol, vol. 



to bariov, contracted barovv, " the hone." 



Singular. 

N. TO OOTS-OV, OGT-OVV. 
G. TOV OCTE-OV, OOT-OV, 

D. tu bare-cp, oot-C), 

A. TO OCTS-OV, OGT-OVV, 
Y. OGTE-QV, bcr-ovv. 



Dual. 
N. Tcb bcTe-o, OGT-U, 
G. toIv ogts-olv, oct-oIv 
D. tolv ogte-olv, ogt-oL 
A. to bcTs-u, ogt-Cj, 

V. OGTE-O), OGT-&. 



Plural. 
N. to, boTs-a, bcT-a, 
G. tuv ogtz-ov, ogt-uv, 
D. Tolg bare-oig, bar-olg 
A. to, boTE-a, boT-a, 
V. boTs-a, ogt-i~> 



DIALECTS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 

1. The iEolians wrote the dative singular without the i 
subscribed ; as, aocpCS for <7opc5. Hence the Latin dative 
and ablative in o of the second declension. In the accusa 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



g9 



live plural they are said to have employed the termination 
otg for ovg ; as, Karrotg v6\ioig for Kara rovg voiiovg. 

2. The Dorians changed the termination og of the nom- 
inative into op ; as, Tifiooeop 6 MtXr]GLop for Tijiodeog 6 
MiXrj(7Log. In the genitive singular they changed the ter- 
mination ov into G) ; as, rc5 vofio) for rov vo\iov. And in 
the accusative plural they employed the termination wc for 
ovg ; as, r&g XvKwg for rovg Xvnovg. Hence the accusa- 
tive plural in os of the second declension of Latin nouns. 

3. The Ionians use sg), in the termination of the genitive- 
singular, for ov ; as, Kpotaeo) for Kpoioov ; Barred) for Bar- 
rov. In the plural they changed Cc>v of the genitive into 
ecjv ; as, nsaoeoyv for neaoGJv ; Trvpeov for nvptiv ; and in 
the dative used otoi for ocg; a,s,XidoiGi for XiQoig. 

4. The form of the genitive oio for ov occurs for the most 
part in the poets only, chiefly the epic. The original form 
of the genitive seems to have been -oo (analogous to ao in 
the first declension), whence came ow, and by contraction 
ov. In the genitive and dative dual the epic poets insert 
an- 1 ; as, lttitouv, &\ioCLv, aradfiouv. 

. 5. The old form of the dative occurs also in Attic ; as, 
Kanoloiv, Plat. Gorg. p. 497, D. ; rovrocot, ib. p. 28 ; oikol- 
mv, Soph. (Ed. T. 249, &c. 

XX. THIRD DECLENSION. 

Terminations, 
a, i, v, neuter, 
a), feminine. 
v, £, p, g, ip, of all genders. 

1. The third declension is distinguished from the two 
preceding in making the oblique cases longer by one syl- 
lable than the nominative. In other words, it is said to 
increase in the genitive. The genitive ends always in og.„ - 

2. The root of the words in this declension is generally 
disguised in the nominative by added vowels and conso- 
nants, and is to be discovered by taking away og from the 
genitive. Thus, nominative 6 6aCiio)v, " the deity" geni- 
tive datfjLov-og, root daiuov ; 6 yiyag, il the giant" gen. yi- 

C2 



30 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



yavr-og , root yiyavr ; rb otifia, " the body" gen. acofiar-og, 

rOOt O&IMLT) &c. 





Examples. 1 




6 


#?7p, " £Ae wild beasi 


5J 


— Singular. 
N. 6 i%, 
G. tov -d-vp-og, 
D. tg) ftrip-i, 
A. rov -d-rip-a, 
V. &flo. 


Dual. 
N. rw -d-ffp-e, 
G. ro?v -d-r/p-otv, 
D. roiv "&7]p-otv, 
A. rw d-ijp-e, 
V. -&7jp-e. 


Plural. 
N. ot fif/p-eg, 
G. rwv -&r]p-{bv, 
D. ro?c -d-np-oi, 
A. rot>c -d-ijp-ug, 
V. -&?jp-eg. 




6 ala)v, " ^e age." 




N. 6 atoiv, 
G. tov aicjv-og, 
D. tcj alwv-i, 
A. tov altiv-a, 
V. a«5v. 


N. rw aiwv-e, 
G. ro?v altJv-otv, 
D. ro?v aiidv-otv, 
A. ra) altiv-e, 
V. altiv-e. 


Plural. 
N. oi aluv-eg, 
G. tcov aluv-uv, 
D. roic alu-tu, 2 
A. roi)c alcov-ag, 
V. a£wv-cf. 


6 


Sat/low, " ^e eZa'ty. 


? 


Singular. 
N. 6 daifitov, 
G. rov daifiov-og, 
D. ru 6ai[iov-i, 
A. rov daiuov-a, 
V. dalfiov. 


DwaZ. 

N. rw Saifiov-e, 
G. roiV Sac/iov-OLv, 
D. toIv 6aiju6v-OLv, 
A. ra> daifiov-e, 
V. daiftov-e. 

6 Xsgjv, " the lion." 


Plural. 
N. oi daijiov-eg, 
G. rwv dai/j,6v-uv, 
D. roZf daifio-uc, 3 
A. roi)c daifiov-ag, 
V. dacjuov-eg. 


Singular. 
N. 6 Zeaw, 
G. row /leovr-of, 
D. r<3 Movt-c, 
A. rov teovT-a, 
V. Xeov. 


Dual. 
N. rw Movt-s, 
G. ro?v Aedvr-oiv, 
D. ro?v /ledvr-otv, 
A. rw Movt-s, 
V. TieovT-s. 


Plural. 
N. ot /leovr-eo, 
G. rdiv' /ledvr-wv, 
D. ro?c ?Jov-ai, 4 
A. roi)c Aeovr-ac, 
V. MovT-eg. 



1. We have placed the paradigms before the remarks on the formation 
of the cases, an arrangement less repulsive to the learner than the other 
would have been ; though, in strictness, the remarks on the cases ough 
to come first. 

2. Old form aldv-ai, whence, by rejecting v before cr, we have alti-ci 

3. Old form 6aifiov-ci, whence, by rejecting v before a, and retaining 
the short vowel of the root, we have 6at,fj,o-ac. 

4. Old form Movt-cu, whence, by rejecting the vt and changing o intc 
ov, we have "keov-at. 



Singular. 
N. rj XalXaty, 
G. rj)g Xaila7r-og, 
IX ry TiafkaK-L, 
A. ttjv lallan-a, 



Singular. 
N. # irrepv^, 

G. rrjg TTTEpvy-OQ, 

D. ry TtTepvy-i, 
A. ttjv Trripvy-a, 

V. TTTSpV^. 



Singular. 
N. 6 £p«f, 
G. tov epur-og, 
D. TO) epcjT-i, 
A. roi> epar-a, 
V. epwc. 



Singular. 
N. 6 ludc, 
G. ro£» ladvr-og, 

D. T6J LfiaVT-L, 

A. tov IfidvT-a, 
V. ifidv. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 

?5 XalXaip, " 4*A<s storm." 

Dual. 
N. re XatXaTT-e, 
G. rao> XaiXdrr-oiv 
D. raw J^at'Kd'K'OLv 
A. rd Xai?,diT-s, 
V. /laiAa7r-e. 



31 



Plural. 
N. ai Xai?M7r-sc, 
G. rwf /iaiAa7r-wv, 
D. ra?c Xaclaip-t, 1 
A. rdc XaiXa7r-ag, 
V. haihan-eg. 



r\ nrepv^, "the wing. 
Dual. 
N. rd irrepvy-e, 
G. ra?v Tcrepvy-oLv, 
D. raw TTTEpvy-otv, 
A. rd -nTepvy-e, 
V. irrepvy-e. 

b epo)g, " ^e Zoue." 

N. rd epor-e, 
G. T04V ep6r-otv, 
D. rofy epur-oiv, 
A. rd epor-e, 
V. epur-e. 

6 Ijxdg, " *7*e thong" 
Dual. 
N. rd- lfzdvr-e, 
G. row IfidvT-oiv, 

D. T04V l/J,dvT-OLV, 

A. rd ludvr-e, 



Plural. 
N. at rcrepvy-eg. 
G. rdv Trrepvy-ov, 
D. ralg irrepv^-c, 2 
A. rdc Tcrspvy-ag, 
V. rcrepvy-eg. 



Plural. 
N. 04 epor-eg, 
G. rov epur-ov, 
D. rofc epo-Gt, 3 
A. roiif epur-ag, 
V. eptor-eg. 



Plural. 
N. ot IfidvT-eg, 
G. rdv ijjidvr-uv, 
D. T04C IfiaG-i* 
A. roi)c i/idvr-ag, 
V. IfxdvT-eg. 



rj (pdXayi-, li ^e 'phalanx." 



Singular. 

N. ^ fydlay^ 
G. r^f tydlayy-og, 
D. r?? <j>d?iayy-i, 
A. ttjv <j>d?iayy-a, 
V. <paAay$;. 



Dual. 
N. rd <pdXayy-E, 
G. ra4v <j>aldyy-oiv, 
D. ra4v (f>aldyy-oiv, 
A. rd <pdhayy-e, 
V. tydXayy-e. 



Plural. 
\ N. a4 <pd?iayy-eg, 
G. rdv (jxzldyy-ov, 
D. ra4c <j>d?iayi;-i, 5 
A. rdc (j>dlayy-ag, 
V. <pd2,ayy-eg. 



1. Old form laiXarr-cn, whence, by substituting the double letter, we 
have lailaip-L. 

2. Old form r:repvy-ai, whence, by substituting £ for yc, we have 
jrrepvf-4. 

3. Old form spur-ci, whence, by rejecting r before c, we have ecu-ffi. 

4. Old form Ifidvr-at. 

5. Old form pcAayy-o'j. 



32 



THIRIi DECLENSION. 



Singular. 
N. 6 dug, 
G. tov tio-og, 
D. T<p -d-o-t, 
A. rbv -fro-a, 
V. dug. 



b dug, " the jack 

Dual. 
N. rw &a-e, 
G. ro?v -&o)-oiv, 
D. roiv -&6-OIV, 
A. rw #<3-e, 



Plural. 
N. o£ #c5-ef, 
G. r<5v ftu-tdv, 
D. ro?f -&o)-ac r 
A. roi)f -&u-ag, 

V. #CJ-£f. 



6 /«£, " iAe wood-worm." 
Singular. Dual. Plural. 



N. d /cif, 

G. roiJ Ki-6g, 

D. T<3 /C£-£, 

A. TOV KL-V, 



N. TU Ki-e, 

G. TO?V KL-OLVj 
D. Tolv KL-OCV, 

A. tcj Kc-e, 
V. kl-e. 



N. o£ KL-EQ, 

G. row ki-uv, 

D. TOif /a-GT, 

A. rotif /a-aj-, 

V. KL-BQ. 



Singular. 
N. rd aufia, 
G. ro£i ccjftaT-og, 

D. TO) GC)jUaT-L, 

A. rd ctifia, 
V. ctifia. 



to o£)[j,a, " the body" 

Dual. 
N. tw o6fj,aT-e, 

G. T04V CCJfl&T-OlV, 
D. TOO* CUjU&T-OtV, 

A. rd) GG)fiaT-e, 
V. <j6fiaT-e. 



Plural. 
N. ra a6/j.aT-a f 

G. 7W GOftdT-OVy 

D. Tolg a6fj,a-ai, 1 
A. rd; u6fj,aT-a T 
V. Gco/xar-a. 



Examples for Exercise in Declension. 



Nom. 
% oip, 
7/ Gap?, 

6 G0)T7/p, 
6 KTJpV^, 

V ^df, 
7] dpi!;, 
to (j>tig, 
t) §CkoTr\g, 
to povXevfia 
TOfieTit, 
t) Trelsidg, 
t) Kopvg, 
6 yiyag, 
6 oSovg, 
d Tidiy^, 
•j? oaTnuy!;, 



Gen. 

biTog, 

GapKog, 

-Tijpog, 

-incog, 

-oyog, 

rpixfc, 

(puTog, 

-TTJTOg, 

-arog, 

-Lrog, 

-ddog, 

-vdog, 

-avTog, 

-ovTog, 

-tyyog, 

-tyyog, 



the voice, 
the flesh, 
the preserver, 
the herald, 
the flame, 
the hair, 
the light, 
the friendship, 
the counsel, 
the honey, 
the dove, 
the helmet, 
the giant, 
the tooth, 
the pebble, 
the trumpet. 



Nom. 
avai;, 
a/If, 
ipaXTT/p, 

Tpd,p, 
6 Ti.tjxrjv, 

6 UtCflUV, 

r) vvt;, 

• TTVp, 

Xa/nrag, 
jidpTvp, 
p7Jrop, 
Kopa^, 

rj dltJirnt;, 

to ovg, 



Gen. 

-aKTog, 

aXog, 

-rjpog, 

(ilvog, 

-Qvog, 

ipapog, 

-svog, 

-ovog, 

VVKTOg, 

Tvvpog, 
-ddog, 
-vpog, 
-opog, 
-anog, 
-EKog, 
uTog, 



the king, 
the sea. 
the harper, 
the nose, 
the storm, 
the starling, 
the harbour, 
the anvil, 
the night. 
the fire, 
the torch, 
the witness, 
the orator, 
the raven, 
the fox. 
the ear. 



I. Old form aufiar-at, 



FORMATION OF THE CASES. 33 

FORMATION OF THE CASES. 

Genitive. 

As a general rule, the genitive singular of nouns of the 
third declension is formed by adding og to the termination 
of the root, such changes taking place, at the same time, 
as the laws of euphony require. 

1. Some nouns, and chiefly those which, in the nomina- 
tive, end in v or p, form the genitive by adding og to the 
termination of the nominative ; as, \jlt\v, " a month" gen. 
y,7)v-6g ; u(orr]p, " a preserver" gen. GG)rrjp-og, &c. In the 
greater part, however, the long vowel in the termination of 
the nominative is changed into the corresponding short 
vowel ; as, Xi\lt\v, " a harbour" gen. Xt[iev-og ; prjTTjp, " a 
mother," gen. \ir\TEp-og ; %EXld&v, " a swallow" gen. %eXi- 
dov-og, &c. 

2. When the nominative already has a final c, this final 
letter disappears before the og of the genitive, and the long 
vowel preceding it in the termination of the nominative is 
changed into its corresponding short ; as, rpcfjprjg, " a tri- 
reme," gen. rptrjpeog, &lc. 

3. When the nominative ends in a double consonant, 
such as | (which is equivalent to yg, ng, or %g) or ip 
(equivalent to (3g, ng, or (pg), the double consonant is re- 
solved into its component parts, the termination og is ad- 
ded, and the c, or final letter of the root, is thrown out ; as, 
al%, " a goat" resolved into alyg, genitive aly-6g ; aXtinTji;, 
" a fox" resolved into dXcJnrjfcg, genitive (with the short 
vowel also for the long) aXuneic-og. So, also, dpi^, " hair" 
(rpfyg), gen. rptx-og ; cf)Xeif), " a vein" (<pXef3g), gen. <f>Xe6- 
bg ; to'ip, "an eye" (gjttc), gen. (brr-og ; fcarrjXtip, " a roof" 
(icarrjXLcpg), gen. KarrjXccp-og. In like manner, <p&Xay%, " a 
phalanx" (<paXayyg), gen. cpdXayy-og ; Xdpvyi;, " the larynx" 
(Xdpvyyg), gen. Xdpvyy-og. 1 

1. Sometimes, instead of these, which were the regular forms, we find 
them with only a single y ; as, (pdpvyog, Od. 9, 373 ; Eurip. Cycl. 
592. So Tidpvyog, Schweigh. ad Atlien. -vol. iv., p. 545. But TivyE, 
" the lynx,'''' has both XvyKoq and Xvyyoq. So, also, vvt; and avat; make 
WKTog and avatnoq, the r being a part of the root (vvtccrr) of the former, 
and, in the case of the latter, being brought in probably to strengthen 



34 FORMATION OF THE CASES. 

A. Nominatives in ag, eig, and ovg, being, for the most 
part, formed from roots ending in avrg, evrg, ovrg (where 
the v and r are thrown out, and the preceding short vowel 
is either made long or else is changed into a diphthong), 
have their genitives in avrog, evrog, or ovrog. Thus, eXe- 
cf)ag, " an elephant" (root eXecpavrg), genitive eXe(f>avr-og ; 
^tfioeig, " the river Simois" (root Sifioevrg), gen. Xtpoevr- 
og ; odovg, " a tooth" (root odovrg), gen. odovr-og. 

5. Words which end in a, i, v, add the syllable rog to 
the termination of the nominative, and thus form the geni- 
tive case ; as, oti^a, " a body," genitive oo)^ar-og ; \iiXt, 
" honey," gen. fieXtr-og. Those in v change also this vowel 
into a before rog ; as, dopv, " a spear," gen. dopar-og ; 
ybvv, " a knee" gen. yovar-og. In strictness, however, 
these nouns in a, i, v come from roots that terminate in r ; 
as, a&\iar, fieXcr ; and hence og is only added, in fact, to 
the root. While with regard to the vowel-change in yovv, 
dopv, and other words of similar ending, it must be borne 
in mind that the old nominatives were in ag, as yovag, do- 
pag (i. e. yovarg, doparg), whence, of course, the geni 
tives yovar-og and dopar-og, by dropping the final c of the 
root. 1 

6. Words in ap make either arog in the genitive ; as^ 
oveiap, " a dream" gen. 6veiar-og ; ijnap, " the liver" gen. 
rjirar-og ; 7\\iap, " a day? gen. r\\iar-og ; <ppeap, " a well" 
gen. (ppear-og ; or else apog ; as, eap, " spring," gen. eap- 
oc ; tisvap, " ^e pa/m o/^Ae hand," gen. -&evap-og. But da- 
fzap makes ddfiapr-og. 

7. Neuters in ag make partly aroc ; as, xpeag, "flesh," 
genitive fcpsar-og ; Kspag, " a horn," gen. Kspar-og. More 
commonly, however, they form the genitive in aog ; as, 
KV£(pag, " darkness," gen. K,ve<pa-og, in which case the At- 
tics contract the termination aoc into 6>c; as, aepGig, npi- 

G)C,,&C. 

the root avaic, after the removal of the g . From the regular declension 
of cvaf (i. e., avaic-og in the genitive, &c.) comes 'Avatcsg, the name 
of Castor and Pollux ; while, on the other hand, the oblique cases of 
nox in Latin show the t of the root. Compare the German nacht and 
the English night. 

1. Matthice, G. G. vol. i., §72, 1. The noun yaka, " milk," makes 
ya\a,KT-og, as from yaXa% (i. e., yalatcrg) ; civrjiu, "mustard" makes, 
according to § 11, GLV-fjTU-og, and in Attic aivrj'Ke-ug ; corv, "a city," 
makes aare-og, Att. aare-ug. Other nouns in U also vary from the ruls 
above given ; as, dattpv, " a tear" gen. da/cpti-of, &c. 



FORMATION OF THE CASES. 35 

8. Nominatives in avg make aog and 7jog ; as vavg, " a 
ship," gen. vaog and vrjog. 

9. Nominatives in eig, different from those mentioned in 
§ 4, make the genitive in evog ; as, ureig, " a comb" gen. 
Krev-vg ; or in eidog ; as nXeig, " a ^e^," gen. rcXeidog. 

10. Nominatives in ??c, other than those alluded to under § 
2, make the genitive in rjrog and 7/0o£ ; as, §iXoT7\g, "friend- 
ship" gen. (ptXoTTjr-og ; nevng, " « ^?oor man," gen. 7rev7]r- 
og ; Udpvrjg, "a mountain on the confines of Attica" gen. 
TLdpvnd-og. Here again o^ is added to the termination of 
the roots, (piXorrfrg, rrev7]rg, &c. 

11. Nominatives in ig make the genitive in tog, tdog, 
Wog, trog, and ivog. The Attics, however, changed tog 
into ewe. Thus, o0i^, " a serpent" gen. b(pi-og (Att. o</>£- 
wc) ; hXrdg, " hope," gen. e/l7m5-oc ; bpvig, " a bird," gen. 
bpvld-og ; %oipig, " a favour," gen. xdpir-og ; dfcrlg, " a beam 
of the sun" gen. d/mo>-oc. All these terminations, like 
those mentioned in the preceding paragraph, are only og 
added to the several roots. 

12. Neuters in og make the genitive in eog, which the 
Attics contract into ovg ; as, rel^og, " a wall," gen. ru%£.-og, 
contr. T£t%-o?;c. 

13. Words in ovg, other than those mentioned under § 4, 
make the genitive in oog ; as, (3ovg, " an ox," gen. (3o-6g. 
Some again, when ovc arises by contraction from oeig, 
gen. de^roc, make the genitive in ovvrog ; as, 'Onovg, " Me 
name of a city," gen. 'Onovvr-og. So, also, Tpcnre&vg, 
[ieXirovg, &c. 

14. Words in v£ make the genitive in v%og ; as, dcojpv^, 
" <z canal," gen. &wp?;%-9C. Others have vyog ; as, 2tv£, 
" the river Styx," gen. 2riry-oc. 

15. Words in vg make vog ; as, 6o<pvg, " *Ae loins," gen. 
6o<pv-og ; dpvg, " a /ree," gen. (5pv-6c ; and sometimes -£(5oc, 
v0oc, and fi'oc ; as, , )(Xa\Lvg, " a cloak," gen. ^A.a/j/i'd-oc ; 
Kopvg, " a helmet," gen. aopvd-og ; tccj^vg, " a bundle," gen. 
K&fivQ-og ; <2>dp/a;c, " Phorcys," gen. <P6picvv-og. 

16. Words in wc make woe, wroc, 00c (contr. o£c), and 
oroc. Thus, fytcoc, " a slave," gen. d/zw-dc ; 7/p&>c, " a 
hero," gen. 7/pw-oc ; </>wc, " light," gen. (f)G)r6g ; epcog, " Zove," 
gen. epo)r-og ; aldcog, " modesty," gen. aldo-og, contr. a«5- 
ovc ; T£TV(pG)g, perf. act. participle of tvtttg), gen. rervtp- 
6r-og. 



36 FORMATION OF THE CASES. 

Accusative. 

As a general rule, the accusative singular of nouns of 

the third declension, that are not neuter, is formed by 

changing og of the genitive into a ; as, \ir\v, gen. \ir\v-og, 
accus. [irjv-a. 

1. But nouns in eg, vg, avg, and ovg, whose genitive ends 
in og pure, take v instead of a ; as, rroXtg, " a -city" gen. 
iroXi-og, ace. ttoXlv ; vavg, " a ship" gen. vr]-6g, ace. vaw ; 
/3oi)c, " aw o#," gen. (36-og, ace. (3ovv, &c. 

2. Other nouns in ic, t>c, &c, whose genitive ends in 0£ 
impure, and which have no accent on the last syllable of 
the nominative, make the accusative in a and v, the latter 
particularly with the Attics. Thus, bpvig, " a bird," gen. 
opved-og, ace. bpvid-a, Att. bpviv ; nXelg, " a key" gen. 
Ac/t£i<5-oc, ace. aXelS-a, Att. tcXelv. So the compounds of 
ttovc ; as, fipadvirovg, " sZow; of foot" ace. ftpadvnod-a, Att. 
fipadimovv ; Oldinovg, " CEdipus," ace. Oldlnod-a. Att. Ot- 

(5t7TOW. 

The vocative of the third declension is generally like the 
nominative ; and this is particularly the case among the 
Attic writers ; as, 6 #?/p, " the wild beast," voc. -&f]p ; ?} 
#e£p, " the hand," voc. %e/p. 

1. But the endings evg, ig, vg, as also the words nalg, 
" a boy" ypavg, " aw aged female," and j$o£c, " an o#," cast 
off their c to form the vocative, and those in evg then as- 
sume the circumflex ; as, f3aat,Xevg, " a king," voc. (3aoiX- 
ev ; llapic, "Paris," voc. Ilap-i ; T7/0i>c, " Tethys," voc. 
Trjd-v ; 7ratc, voc. 7rat ; ypavg, voc. ypav ; /fovc, voc. /3oD. 
Other nouns in ovg more frequently retain than drop the 
c. Thus, Oldln-ov is found ; but Oldinovg is more com- 
mon. 

2. Words in ag and eic, which arise from old forms end- 
ing in avg and evg, and which form their genitive in avog, 
avrog, or evrog, throw away c in the vocative, and then, for 
the most part, resume the v ; as, rdXag, " miserable" gen. 



FORMATION OF THE CASES, 37 

rdXav-og , voc. rdXav ; Alag, " Ajacc" gen. Alavr-og, voc. 
Alav ; ^apiece;, " graceful" gen. %apitVT-og, voc. x a P Lev ' 
But several proper names in ac, avroc, have in the voca- 
tive only the long a; as, "ArAac, gen. "ArAa^T-oc, voc^ 
v ArXa. 

3. Words which have r\ or a) in the termination of the 
nominative, and the corresponding short vowel (e or o) in 
the genitive, and which have no acute accent on the last 
syllable, take the short vowel also in the vocative ; as, \i/r\- 
T?]p, ll a mother" gen. p,rjrep-og, voc. firjrep ; pfjTGip, " an 
orator, gen. prjrop-og, voc. pr\rop ; 'EoKpdrrjg, " Socrates" 
gen. ^(OKpdr-eog, voc. HcotcpaTeg. If, however, the last 
syllable of such words has the accent, then the long vowel 
is retained in the vocative ; as, 7TOLp,f)v, " a shepherd," gen. 
rroLfisv-og, voc. ttoi\i7]v. But this only applies to nouns, 
not to adjectives, and hence KeXacve(pi]g makes in the voca- 
tive KeXaive<peg. 

4. Words which retain the long vowel in the genitive 
keep it also in the vocative ; as, UXdro)v, " Plato," gen. 
UXdroiv-og, voc. ILXdr-G)v ; "Zevo^tiv, " Xenophon" gen. 
Zevo(pGJVT-og, voc. "Zevocp-tiv ; lrrrr\p, " a physician," gen. 
Irjrrjp-og, voc. irjr-rjp. But the following three make the 
vowel short in the vocative ; 'Atto/IAgj^, " Apollo," gen. 
'Atto/IAwv-oc, voc. "ArroAA-oi' ; lToo'e^GJi', " Neptune," gen. 
noceidwv-oc, voc. ndceid-o^ ; GG)rfjp, " « saviour" gen. 
ocdrfjp-og, voc. aCdrep. 

5. Proper names in tf/li/c make -nXecg in the termination 
of the vocative ; as, 'NtKotcXrjg, voc. 'NtKOKX-ecg. Here the 
nominative was originally -KXerjg, and consequently the vo- 
cative is -tcXeeg, contracted nXecg. 

6. Words in 6) and wc make ot in the vocative ; as, Arjrcjj 
" Latona," voc. Arjr-ol ; 2a7T0w, " Sappho" voc. Sarccp-oZ ; 
aldcog, " modesty," voc. aM-oL 

Dative Plural 
The dative plural in nouns which end in £t>c, avc, and 
ovc, is formed by appending i to the termination of the 
nominative singular ; as, fiaotXevg, (3aaiXevoi ; vavg, vav- 
ai ; (3ovg, [3ovgL In the case of other nouns, the dative 
plural is formed by adding at to the root, such changes 
being at the same time made as the rules of euphony re- 
D 



38 CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

quire ; as, vug, gen. vvicr-og, dat. pi. vvi-i (i. e. vv/ctgl) ; 
odovg, gen. odovr-og, dat. pi. bdovot (i. e. ddovrai) ; iralg, 
gen. naid-og, dat. pi. natol (i. e. Tratdai) ; "Apaip, gen. 
"Apa6-og, dat. pi. "Apaifu (i. e. "Apa(3ui) ; rvTrslg, gen. 
rvnevr-og, dat. pi. rvneloi,, (i. e. rvnivroi) ; ureig, gen. 
Krev-og, dat. pi. /erect (i. e. ktevgl), &c. 

1. When the ending <7t, on being added to the root, is 
preceded by a vowel, or, in other words, when the genitive 
ends in of pure, this vowel remains in the dative plural un- 
changed, as in the other oblique cases ; as, relxog, gen. 
reix&-og, dat. pi. tslx^oi ; dpvg, gen. dpv-6g, dat. pi. dpvoiv ; 
aXrjOrjg, gen. afa]6e-og, dat. pi. aXrfliai. When, however, 
the nominative singular has a diphthong, the dative plural 
takes it also ; as, (3amXevg, gen. (3aet,X£-G)g, dat. pi. fiaoiX- 
evGi, and the other nouns mentioned in the beginning of 
the previous paragraph. 

2. Some nouns in rjp, gen. -epog, drop the e in the geni- 
tive and dative singular, and also in the dative plural, and 
then, in the latter case, insert after p the more sonorous a ; 
as, Trarrjp, " a father" gen. narp-og (from Trarep-og), dat. 
Trarpl (from Trarep-t), &c, dat. pi. ixarpdoi. So, also, p7- 
r?7p, yaarrjp, -dvydrrip, A7]jif]T7]p. 

CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 
1 . Nouns in r\g undergo contraction in every case, except 
in the nominative and vocative singular, and dative plural. 
Thus: 

r\ rpirjpTjg, " the trireme" 
Singular. Dual. Plural. 



N. 7] TpL7]p-7]g, 

G. rfjg rpLT/p-eog, -ovg, 

D. rrf rptrip-ei, -el, 

A. Tqv rptrjp-sa, -77, 

V. rpirjp-Eg. 



N. to, rpirip-ee, 
G. ralv Tptrjp-eoiv, -otv. 
D. ralv rpLvp-eoiv, -ocv, 
A. ra rpLrjp-ee, -7}, 
V. Tpirjp-ee, -tj. 



N. at Tpifjp-eeg, -eic, 
G. tuv Tptrjp-euVf-Qv, 
D. rate TpiTJp-eat, 
A. rag rpirip-eag, -eig, 
V. Tpiqp-seg, -eig. 



2. Like rpir\pr\g are also declined the proper names end- 
ing in icXerjg ; as, 'Kpa/cXerjg, contracted 'HpafcXrjg • Qe/mg- 
roKXr\g, HepLKXrig, &c. In the dative they have a double 
contraction. Thus : 



CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 39 

6 'Hpafckerjg, " Hercules," 

N. 6 'Hpa/cA-e?^, -rjg, 
G. rov 'HpaK?^eog, -ovg, 
D. t£) 'HpanTi-eec, -eel, -el, 
A. rov 'Hpa/cA-ea, -rj, 
V. 'HpdnX-eEg, -ELg. 

3. Nouns in oc* are neuter, and make the nominative, ac- 
cusative, and vocative plural in ea, contracted 7], and the 
genitive in eojv, contracted wv. Thus : 



N. to relx-og, 
G. rov reix-eog, 
D. r<p telx-sl, 
A. to Telx-og, 



to relxog, " Me waZZ." 
Dual. 

N. TCJ T£i^-££, -7?, 
G. TOIV TELX-£OLV, -OtV, 
D. TOlV TEIX-ZOIV, -OCV, 

A. tg) Teix-ee, -rj, 
V. Teix-ee, -v. 



Plural. 
N. ra TELX-ea, -n, 

G. TUV TECX-EUV, -OV, 

D. rolg tslx-egl, 
A. ra TEtx-Ea, -tj, 
V. T£ix-ea, -rj. 



4. Nouns in 6) and wc have three contractions, namely, 
oog of the genitive singular into ovg, ol of the dative into 
ol, and oa of the accusative into w. Their dual and plural 
have no contractions, but are declined throughout like the 
corresponding parts of Xoyog. Few of them, indeed, from 
their signification, admit, strictly speaking, of a dual or 
plural. Thus : 



Singular. 

N. jy VX'^i 
G. rfjg r)x-6og, -ovg, 
D. rfj t)x-61, -ol, 
A. rrjv 7/x-oa, -«, 



VVX<>>> 



' Me ecAo.' 



Dual. 
N. ra yx-&i 
G. ra?v %'-oZV, 
D. rau> 77^-oZv, 
A. ra vx-u, 
V. fa-u. 



Plural. 
N. at vx-oi, 
G. rwv 7)x-tiv, 
D. ratf vx-olg, 
A. rag WX~°ve, 
V. VX~ 01 " 



Singular. 
N. ^ ald-6g, 
G. rfjg ald-oog, - 
D. r?jj at(5-o£', • 
A. r^v alS-6a, - 
V. aW-o?. 



^ aidug, " Me modesty." 



Dual. 
N. ra ald-6, 
G. raZv aid-olv, 
D. raZV aid-olv, 
A. ra aid-6, 
V. atd-t). 



Plural. 
N. at ald-oi, 
G. rfiv aiS-ibv, 
D. ra?f aid-olg, 
A. raf ald-ovg, 
V. ald-oi. 



40 



CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



5. Nouns in ig and i have three contractions, namely, el 
of the dative into ei, eeg of the nominative and vocative 
plural into eig, and sag of the accusative plural into eig. 
Those in eg have also in the genitive singular, and the gen- 
itive and dative dual, the Attic terminations eojg and ecpv, 
instead of sog and eoiv. Thus : 



Singular. 

N. 7] TToTi-LQ, 

G. rfjQ iroX-sug, 

D. T7J 7T0?i,-eC, -I 
A. T7]V Tt6%-LV, 



Singular. 

N. TO GLV7J7T-1, 

G. rov GLvfjir-eog, 
D. to CLV7}ir-ei, -ei, 
A. to aivniT-i, 
V. civnTT-i. 



7] TToXcg, " the city.' 

Dual. 
N. to, noise, 

G. TOW 7T6X-SUV, 

D. raiv 7r6A-£ov, 
A. TO, 7v6X-es, 

V. TToTi-EE. 



Plural. 
N. at nol-eeg, -etf, 
G. tcjv noX-icov, 
D. raXg 7t61-eci, 
A. Tag Tr6X-£ac, -eig, 
V. nol-ESQ) -eig. 



to OLV7J7U, " iAe mustard." 
Dual. 

N. to CLvrjTc-es, 

G. TOO> OIV7]TV-£OLV, 

D. roZV CLvnir-soiv, 

A. TO) GlVTjTT-ee, 
1 V. GLvf]Tr-££. 



N. ra oivfjir-ea, 
G. tov atvv7r-eo)v f 
D. ro?f oLvrjTv-eai, 
A. ra GLvfjir-ea, 
I V. GLvrjTv-ea. 



6. Nouns in uc, gen. wc, have two contractions, name- 
ly, vec of the nominative and vocative plural into vc, and 
vac of the accusative plural into vg. Thus : 



6 Ixjdvg, " 2/*e ^A.' 



Singular. 


Dual. 


N. o ^-vf, 


N. rw IxO-ve, 


G. TO0 i^-tSof, 


G. roa> ixd-voiv 


D. to lxd-vi, 


D. roiv lxO-volv 


A. rov ixd-vv, 


A. TO ££#-!>£, 


V. ^0-v. 


V. IxO-ve. 



Plural. 
N. oi Ixd-veg, -vg 7 

G. TOV ^-Va)!/, 

D. ro?f 2^^-vcri, 

A. roi>f i^^-vaf, -vf, 

V. ixO-veg, -vg. 

7. Nouns in evg, and those in vg which make, like them 
the genitive in ecog, have four contractions, namely, el of 
the dative singular into ei, es of the dual into rj, eeg of the 
nominative and vocative plural into eeg, and sag of the ac- 
cusative plural into etg. But in the last case the uncon- 
tracted eag is the more usual form. Thus : 



CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



41 



6 j3aatXevg, " the king" 



Singular. 
N. 6 (3a<TLX-evc, 
G. tov (SaacTi-euc, 
D. tG) (3aaiX-ei } -ec, 
A. tov (3aacX-ea, 
V. j3aac?i-£V. 



Dual. 
N. rib (3acn2,-ie, -rj, 

G. toIv fiaOiX-EOLV, 

D. toIv flacril-iotv, 
A. to j3aacX-is, -ij, 
V. (3aGil-£e, -j}. 



Plural. 
N. Oi (iaaik-eeg, -ei£ f 
G. tuv (3a<7i?i-eG)v, 
D. ro?f (3acn?i-£VGC, 
A. roi)f fiaoiTi-eas, -slg, 
V. fiaaik-ieg, -slg. 



8. Neuters in v make the nominative, accusative, and 
vocative plural in ea, contracted into r\. They also con- 
tract el into ei, and ee into 77. Thus : 



Singular. 
N. ro aoT-v, 
G. tov aar-eoc, 
D. to) acT-t % e 
*A. to aar-v, 



ro aery, " ?Ae c^y." 

N. tcj ugt-ee, -rj. 
G. toTv dar-iocv, 
D. toiv aar-eoLV, 

A. TO) aCT-EE, -7}, 
V. U.GT-EE, -71. 



Plural. 
N. ra aor-ea, -ij, 

G. TG)V UGT-io)V, 
D. TOiq aUT-EUL, 

A. ra aar-Ea, -rj, 
V. aoT-Ea, -7j. 



9. Neuters in ag pure and pag reject r by syncope in 
the Ionic dialect, and are also farther contracted by crasis 
in the Attic, in every case except the nominative, accusa- 
tive, and vocative singular, and the dative plural. Thus ; 



to Kpsag, 



1 the 



Singular. 
N. to Kpi-ag. 
G. tov upE-aTOQ, by syncope Kpi-aoc, by crasis 



Kpi-aTL, 
A. to ups-ag. 
V. Kpe-ag. 

Dual. 
N. to) Kpi-are, . 
G. toIv ups-aTOiv, 
D. toIv Kps-droiv, 
A. TO) Kpi-are, . 

V. Kpe-dTE, . 

Plural. 
N. ra Kpi-ara, 
G. rfiv KpE-dro)V, 
D. Toig Kpi-act. 
A. to, Kpi-ara, 
V. Kpi-ara, 



ups-ai, 



Kpe-ae, 

Kps-doiv, 

Kps-doiv, 

Kpi-ae, 

Kpi-ae, 



. Kps-aa, 
. Kpe-dcov, 

. Kpi-aa, 
. Kpi-aa, 
D2 



/cpe-wf. 
Kpi-a. 



icpe-a. 
tcps-tiv. 

KpE-C)V. 

Kpi-a. 
Kpi-a. 



Kpi-a. 
Kpe-uv. 

Kpi-a. 
Kpi-a. 



42 CONTRACTIONS OP THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

to fcepag, " the horn" 

Singular. 
N. to Kip-dg. 

G. tov Ksp-dTog, by syncope nep-aoc, by crasis Kep-ug. 
D. rw Kip-arc, .... Kep-ai, . . . Kep-a. 
A. to Ksp-ag. 
V. Ksp-dg. 



N. rw Kep-are, . . 


. . KEp-dS, . 


. Kep-a. 


G. Tolv Kep-drotv, . 


. KEp-dOlV, 


. Kep-Gw. 


D. TOIV KEp-aTOLV, . 


. . KEp-dOLV, 


. Kep-fiv. 


A. TO) KEp-dTE, . 


. KEp-d£, . 


. Kep-a. 


V. KEp-dTE, . 


. KEp-d£, . 


. Kep-a. 


Plural. 






N. T<Z Ksp-aT<z, 


. . KEp-dd, . 


. Kep-a. 


G. tCjv liip-aTcov, 


. . KSp-dO)V, 


. KSp-UV. 


D. Tolg Ksp-aat. 






Ik. to, Ksp-aTd, 


. . KEp-dd, . 


. Kep-a. 


V. nip-aTd, 


. . KEp-dd, . 


. KEp-a. 



10. Some words in r\p, genitive -epog, throw away the e 
before p in the genitive and dative, and so exhibit a double 
form. After the letter v, when it is brought into collision 
with p in such forms, a d is added in order to soften the 
sound. The noun Trarrjp is an instance of the first mode 
of declining, the noun dvrjp of the second. Thus : 



Singular. 

N. 6 KdT-fjp, 
G. TOV TTdT-EpOQ, 
D. Tib TtdT-EpL, 

A. tov TraT-spa, 

V. TTdT-Ep. 



■P"C: 



6 Trarrjp, " the father." 1 
Dual. 

N. TO) TTdT-EpE, 
G. TOtV TZdT-EpOLV, 



D. TOIV TidT-tpOLV, 
TO) TCdT-epE, 
-KdT-ipE. 



V, 



Plural. 
N. ol ndT-epeg, 

G. TUV 7TdT-EpO)V, -pC)V, 

D. Tolg ixdT-pdci, 
A. Tovg 7rdT-epag, 
V. TTdT-Epsg. 



1. In the same way are declined fJ-rJTnp, " a mother" and ydaTrjp, " a 
stomach," except that yaoTrjp makes in the dative plural ydCTrjpoL, which 
appears to have been also the old form of TtdTrjp and jJ-rjTnp. It must 
be remembered, moreover, that TtdTTJp, [*?]Trjp, and yaoTrjp make the ac- 
cusative singular without contraction. This is done in the case of fi7J- 
Tvp, to prevent its being confounded with ur/Tpa, -ag, " a womb ;" in the 
case of TraTTjp, to prevent its being confounded with 7rarpa, -dg, " a pa' 
ternal land ;" and in yauTrip, to prevent similar confusion with ydoTpa, 
•ag, " the bottom of a vessel." 



ANOMALOUS FORMS OP THE THIRD DECLENSION. 43 



Singular. 
N. 6 av-TJp, 
G. tov av-spog, -dpog, 
D. T<p av-epi, -dpi, 
A. tov av-spa, -6pa, 
V. av-ep. 



6 dvrjp, " the man? 

Dual. 

N. to) av-epe, -dpe, 
G. rolv av'Spocv, -dpoiv 
D. rolv av-epocv, -Spoiv 
A. r« av-spe, -dps, 
av-epe, -dps. 



V. 



Plural. 
N. o£ av^epeg, -Spec, 
G. r&v av^epuv, -dpuv f 
D. roig av-Spdai, 
A. rovg av-epag, -Spa?, 
V. av-epeg, -dpeg. 



11. Some nouns are contracted by either dropping a 
'Vowel, or blending two vowels into one, and this contrac- 
tion takes place in every case, /hus : 



to eap, contr. rjp, 
" the spring." 



N. to eap, rjp, 

G. tov eap-og, rjpog, 

D. tg~> lap-t, 7] pi, &cc. 



6 fieveojv, contr. ksvcov, 
" the belly " 

Singular. 
N. 6 neveuv, ttevtiv, 
G. tov Keve-uvog, tcev-fivog, 
D. TO) KEVS-£)Vl, tcev-tivi, &c, 



ANOMALOUS FORMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

1. That is called anomalous which is inconsistent with 
the prescribed laws of formation ; as, for example, when 
%apig, though formed from a root %api$, makes %apiTog in 
the genitive, not %api&og. 

2. The greater part of the actual deviations from regular 
declension consist in the interchange of forms. In the 
more ancient language, it often happened that a word had 
two or more terminations and modes of inflection, with only 
one and the same signification. Only one of these forms 
was, for the most part, retained as the language became im- 
proved. The other was merely employed, now and then, 
when a more sonorous term was needed, especially in po- 
etry. Thus, ArjiirjTTjp, more seldom, I\.r\\xr\Tpa, "Ceres;" 
daupvov, older form ddtcpv, -vog, " a tear." 

3. Sometimes the two forms remained more or less in 
common use by the side of each other ; as, vlog, " a son" 
genitive vlov ; and also vleog, from a nominative of the third 
declension in evg. y 

4. Sometimes both forms originate from the same nom- 
inative, in which case the word is called a Heteroclite. 
Thus, Oldirtovg, genitive Oldcirodog, and OISittov. 

5. When, however, one of the forms can be traced to an 



44 ANOMALOUS FORMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



obsolete or unusual nominative, it is called Metaplasm ; as, 
dsvdpov, gen. -ov ; dative plural SevSpocg, and also devdpeo- 
iv, from a nominative to devdpog. 

6. Most of the common and poetical anomalies that oc- 
cur in declension consist of heteroclites and metaplasms. 

7. To the heteroclites belong certain words that are in- 
flected after both the first and third declensions. Some of 
these carry this double mode of inflexion throughout ; as, 
\ivnr\g, " a mushroom" genitive fivfcov and \ivar\rog, Slc. 
This is particularly the case with proper names in r\g ; as, 
Adprjg, genitive Adpov and Adprjrog. Others have it only 
in part ; as, 2,cofcpdT7]g, accusative ^ooupdrrj and XcoKpdr^v. 

8. Nouns in cog sometimes make the genitive in oo and 
ooog. Thus, Mivoyg, gen. Mlva and Mlvcoog ; irdrpoog, " a 
paternal uncle" gen. ndrpo) and ndrpooog. 

9. Nouns in cog, genitive oorog, sometimes drop the r ; 
as, Idpoog, " sweat," which has not only Idpoorc and Idptira 
in the dative and accusative, but also r£> Idpco and rbv Idpoo, 
the latter being Attic forms. 

10. Nouns in Gig and cov have sometimes the anomaly 
still more apparent, since it shows itself even in the nom- 
inative. Thus, 6 ratigj gen. raco, " the peacock," and 6 ra~ 
cov, genitive raiovog. So, also, r) dXcog, gen. aXco, " the 
ihreshing-jloor" and dXcog, gen. aXoog. 

11. The declension of vavg, a ship, is as follows : 






Attic. 

Sing. N. vavg, 
G. vecjg, 

D. V7]L, 

A. vavv, 
Y. vavc. 

Dual. N. vfje, 
G. veolv, 
D veolv, 
A vfje, 
V. vfje. 

PI. N. vrjeg, 

G. VEGJV, 

D. vavoi 
A. vavg, 
V. vff&c. 



rj vavg, " iAe ship" 

Epic and 7omc. 
*Smg\ N. vavg, 

G. v?;6f and vsog, 
D. i^i*, 

A. o^a and via, 
V. va£f . 

Dual. N. r>??s, 

G. VEOLV, 
D. VEOLV, 
A. ?^S, 

V. vfje. 



PL 



N. vrjeg and veef, 

G. VECOV, 

D. v?7V<7i' and veeool, 
A. ^a$- and veaf, _ 
V. vrjeg. 



Doric. 
Sing. N. vag, 
G. vcdf, 
D. vat, 

A. vaw and vdj>, 
V. vag . 

Dual. N. vae, 
G. vaolv, 
D. vaolv, 
A. vae, 
V. vae. 



PZ. 



N. vae^, 

G. VG6>V, 

D. vavoi, 
A. vaaf, 
V. rdef. 



DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 45 

12. The noun (3ovg, " an ox" makes (3o6g in the geni- 
tive, (3ovv in the accusative, and in the plural, nom. (36eg, 
contracted (3ovg, dative (3ovgl, accusative (36ag, contr. (3ovg. 

13 The declension of Zevg is also peculiar. Thus, 

N. Zsvg, 

G. Zrjvog and Aiof, 
D. Zrivi and Aw, 
A. Zfjva and Ata, 
V. Zev. 

14. Under the head of anomalies in declension may be 
ranked the very peculiar paragogic ending in (piv or (pt. 
This is of very common occurrence in epic poetry, and is 
used instead of the ordinary dative or genitive singular. 
The rules that control it are as follows : 1 . In the first de- 
clension, nouns in r\ throw away the g of the genitive ; as 
from evvrjg is formed evvr\<piv. The dative, however, ap- 
pends (ptv or (pi at once ; as, evvxf, evv(j(piv. 2. If the noun 
end in og or ov, the o alone remains before (pcv or <pi, while 
in those in og, which make the genitive in eog, contr. ovg, 
the form eg (or evg), the Ionic contraction from eog enters. 
Thus we have from arparov the form orpar6(pLv ; from 
epe6og, gen. epe6eog, contr. -ovg, the form epedevocpiv ; from 
orrjdog, gen. arrjdeog, contr. GrrjOovg, the form Grrj'&eocpcv. 

DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 

1. Defective nouns are such as cannot, from their very 
nature, occur in more than one number. Thus, ol errj- 
mai, "the etesian winds;" to, Aiovvoia, " the festival of 
Bacchus." 

2. Some again are only employed in the nominative and 
accusative ; as, the neuters, ovap, " a dream ;" irnap, " a 
vision ;" defiag, " a body" 

3. Others are only used in the nominative ; as, ocpeXog, 
" advantage " rjdog, " benefit" Or in the vocative ; as, <5 
rdv, " O thou." 

4. Many from having been nouns have become adverbs 
in consequence of their being employed in only one partic- 
ular case ; as, emftXrjv, " by name " 



46 DIALECTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

INDECLINABLE NOUNS. 

1. Under this are ranked most of the cardinal numbers , 
as, nevre, " Jive ;" eg, "six;" enrd, " seven" &c. 

2. The names of the letters ; as, aX<pa, pTJra, &c. 

3. The neuter participle rb %pe&v, from the impersonal 

XPV- 

4. The noun &e[ug, when it occurs in the formula -&e[itg 
earl. 

DIALECTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION ; 

1. The iEolians said noXvnovior ttoXvttovv, the accusa- 
tive of TioXvirovg. They also employed yekov for yeXo)ra, 
the accusative of yeXoyg, and rjpoyv for rjpcjg. 

2. The JEolians said 2a7r</>c5c, ArjT&g, in the nominative, 
instead of 2a7r0c5, Atjtg). 

3. The iEolians frequently employ the termination evg 
instead of r\g ; as, "Apevg for "Aprjg, and form the oblique 
cases as follows : gen. "Apevog ; dat. 'Apevc ; ace. "Apeva. 
The nominative in evg sometimes occurs also in Doric ; as, 
'Evfj,r)6evg, Theocrit. 5. 134. 

4. The iEolians and Dorians use in the genitive singular 
• the termination evg instead of eog ; as, -ddjibevg for tidfideog. 

So, also, evg for eog ; as, 'A%ikXevg for 'A^AAecoc. 

5. The jEolians say Scatcpdrov in the genitive instead of 
Soupdrovg ; and in the vocative ^d)Kpare. Hence Pericle 
in Cicero, Off. 1. 40. 8. 

6. The Dorians said, in the genitive plural, alydv for al- 
ytiv ; -&?]pav for $T]pGdv ; and, in the nominative, lioaeiddv 
for Hooeid&v. 

7. The Dorians said v:oi\idv for Ttoi\ir\v, and so through- 
out. So, also, (ppaat. for (fypeoi, the dative plural of (f)prjv. 

8. The Dorians used npr\g for upeag ; and <bpr\ri for 0p£- 
cm, the dative of <ppeap. 

9. In such forms as (3ovg, gen. /3ooc, the Dorians change 
ov in all the cases into G) ; as, nominative (3cog, Theocrit. 
8. 77. ; ace. pi. rag (3o3c ; dative pi. (Sojglv, &c. 

10. The Dorians often employ the termination rjg in the 
nominative for evg. Thus they say, "Op<pr]g for 'Opcpevg ; 
$iXr]g for $i/levc, &c. 

1 1 . The Doric vocative of nouns in evg is formed in tj , 
as, Tv67), 



PATRONYMIC NOUNS. 4? 

12. In the Ionic dialect, the genitive plural ends in eo)v ; 
as, avdpeov, xecpeov, firjveojv. 

13. Nouns in eg, gen. idog, lose in Ionic the 6, and those 
in ag, gen. arog, the r. Thus, 'Oaipiog for 'Ooipcdog ; 
Qerc for QstlSl ; yrjpaog for yrjparog ; n&paog for neparog. 

14. The Ionians do not contract the cases of contracti- 
ble nouns ; as, evidpveg, not evidpvg. So, also, they say 
ofipvag, ensog, 'UpanXerjg, &c. 

15. The Ionians decline nouns in evg with ?y not con- 
tracture ; as, fiaaiXriog, rofcrjuv, &c. 

16. Nouns in tc are declined by the Ionians with i con- 
tracture ; as, noXtg, gen. iroXtog ; oficg, gen. bcpiog. 

17. The Ionians are fond of the termination eat in the 
dative plural ; as, %dpECi, fcvveoi, avdfcreGt, &c. 

XXI. PATRONYMIC NOUNS. 

1. Patronymics are nouns which designate a son or a 
daughter. They are derived from the proper name of the 
father, sometimes also from that of the mother. 

2. The Masculine Patronymics are of two classes. 
The first class end in either Idrjg, dSrjg, or tdd?]g, and form 
the genitive in ov. The second end in iG)v, and make the 
genitive in cjvog, rarely ovog. 

3. Patronymics in idr]g and lojv are formed from nouns 
in og of the second declension. Thus, from Kpovog, " Sat- 
urn" come the patronymics Kpovldrjg and Kpovlojv, both 
meaning " the son of Saturn" i. e., Jupiter. So from K6- 
Spog we have Kodpldrjg ; from TdvraXog, TavraXidrig ; 
from Alafcog, AlafcLdrjg. 

4. Patronymics in cadrjg are formed from nouns in tog ; 
as, from "KXcog comes 'HXiddrjg ; from 'AotcXrjmog, 'A(7- 
nXrjmddrig ; from Aaeprtog, Aaeprcddrjg. 

5. Patronymics in ddrjg come from nouns in r\g and ag of 
the first declension. Thus, from f l7T7rdr?/c comes e Imrord- 
drjg ; from 'AXevag, 'AXevddrjg. 

6. In nouns of the third declension the genitive serves 
as the basis of derivation. If the penult of the genitive be 
short, the patronymic from og is formed in i§r\g ; as, from 



48 ADJECTIVES. 

Ayane[jiVG)v, gen. -ovog, comes ' Ay a\iE\ivovl67\g ; from 0£ff- 
rcjp, gen. -opog, Qeoropidqg ; from Atjtg), gen. -oog, Atjtol- 
drjg, &c. But if the penult of the genitive be long, the 
patronymic ends in iddr^g ; as, from TeXaficjv, gen. -tivog, 
comes TeXafiovLddrjg ; from 'Afuptrpvoyv, gen. -a>voc, 'Afi- 
(piTpvovtddrjg. 

7. Nouns in evg, which in Ionic have the genitive in yog, 
give rise to the patrymonic form rj'idd^g. Thus, from Utj- 
Xevg, gen. -770c, comes H7]X7]Ld67]g ; from ILepcrevg, gen. 
-7]og, ILepoijiddrjg. But since these have also the termina 
tion ewe in the genitive, which continued to be the prevail- 
ing one in the Attic and common dialects, hence arose, from 
Hepoevg, gen. Uepoecog, the patronymic form Uepaetdrjg ; 
from 'Arpevg, gen. 'Arpecjg, the form 'Arpecd^g. 

8. The Female Patronymics have four terminations, 
namely, either tag, Ig, ivrj, or uovr). Thus, from Bpiaevg 
comes BpLOTjlg ; from "ArXag, 'ArXavrig ; from 'AdpTjorog, 
'Adp7](7Ttv7] ; from 'Afcptocog, 'AitpLOLG)vr). It is to be re- 
marked, that the termination ivr\ arises when the primitive 
has a consonant before its own termination, and the termi- 
nation lo)V7] when the primitive has before its ending the 
vowel l or v. 

XXII. ADJECTIVES. 

1. The declensions of adjectives are three. 

2. The first declension of adjectives has three termina 
tions ; the second, two ; the third, one. 

3. Adjectives of three terminations are the most numer- 
ous, and have the feminine always in r\, except when pre- 
ceded by a vowel or the letter p, in which cases it ends in 
a. Thus : 

deiXog, detXrj, detXov, " cowardly ;" 
KaXog, KaXf], kclXov, "handsome}" 
oology ootyr}, co<pov, "wise." 



ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 



49 



But, 



(piXiog, 
ayiog, ayia, 
lepog, lepd, 



(piXiov, "friendly ;" 
ayiov, " holy ;" 
lepov, " sacred." 



4. The masculine termination in og and the neuter in ov 
are inflected after the second declension of nouns. The 
feminine termination in r\ or a is inflected after the first de- 
clension of nouns. 

5. Adjectives in oog, however, have the feminine in r\ ; 
as, oydoog, oydorj ; -doog, -&orj. But, when p precedes, 
these have also a ; as, atipoog, atipoa. 



1. ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 

1. Termination in og. 

GO(f)6g, " wise." 





Singular. 




Dual. 




Plural. 




N. 


cotp-og, -r\, 


-ov, 


N. cotp-6, -a, -to, 


N 


aotp-ol, -at, 


-a, 


G. 


GOCp-OV, -fjg, 


-ov, 


G. Gotb-olv, -alv, -olv, 


G 


GOfp-COV, -tov, 


-tov, 


D. 


Gotp-u, -Tj, 


-co, 


D. cotp-olv, -alv, -olv, 


D. 


GOtp-olg, -alg 


-olg, 


A. 


ao(j>-6v -rjv, 


-ov, 


A. Gocp-to, -a, -6, 


A. 


Gotp-ovg, -dg, 


-d, 


V. 


cotp-e, -rj, 


-ov. 


V. Gocp-u, -a, -to. 

lepog, " sacred" 


V. 


cotp-oi, -at, 


-a. 




Singular. 




Dual. 




Plural. 




N. 


lep-og, -a, 


-ov, 


N. lep-to, -a, -to, 


N. 


lep-oi, -ai, 


-a, 


G. 


lep-ov, -ag, 


-ov, 


G. lep-olv, -alv, -olv, 


G. 


lep-tov, -tov, 


-tbv t 


D. 


lep-C), -a, 


-CO, 


D. lep-olv, -alv, -olv, 


D. 


lep-olg, -alg, 


-olg, 


A. 


lep-ov, -dv, 


-ov, 


A. lep-to, -a, -to, 


A. 


lep-ovg, -dg, 


-d, 


V. 


tep-£, -d, 


-ov. 


V. lep-to, -a, -to. 


V. 


lep-oi, -ai, 


-d 



2. Termination in eog. 
Adjectives in eog are contracted throughout. In the fem- 
inine, ea is contracted into a when a vowel or the letter p 
precedes the termination og ; but otherwise it is contracted 
into rj. In the neuter plural, however, ea is always con- 
tracted into a, whatever letter may precede og. Thus : 



50 



ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 





Xpvoeog, contr. 'xpvaovg, " 


golden 


" 






Singular. 






Dual. 




N 


XpVOrEOg, 


-ia, 


-EOV, 


N. x? va 


■EC), 


-ia, 


-EG), 




ovg, 


V, 


OVV, 




CO, 


a, 


CO, 


G 


Xpvcr-iov, 


-iag, 


-EOV, 


G. XP VG 


■EOCV, 


-iatv, 


-eoiv, 




ov, 


ye, 


OV, 




olv, 


alv, 


olv, 


D 


Xpva-icp, 


-ia, 


-EG), 


D. XP VG 


■EOLV, 


-iaiv, 


-ioiv, 




C), 


V, 


G), 




olv, 


alv, 


olv, 


A 


Xpva-Eov, 


-iav, 


-EOV, 


A. xpva 


-EG), 


-ia, 


-ico, 




ovv, 


fjV, 


OVV, 




CO, 


a, 


CO, 


V 


Xpvo-ee, 


-ea, 


-EOV, 


V. XP VG 


EG), 


-ia, 


-ico, 






y, 


OVV. 




G), 


a, 


CO. 








Plural. 












N. 


XpVG-EOi, 
01, 


-iai, 
at, 


-ea, 
a, 










G. 


Xpva-icov, 
cbv, 


-itOV, 

cbv, 


■£G)V, 

cbv, 










D. 


Xpva-ioi.g, 
olg, 


-iaig, 
alg, 


-EOCC, 
OLQ, 










A. 


Xpvc-Eovg, 
ovg, 


-iag, 
ag, 


-Ea, 
a, 










V. 


Xpva-eoi, 


-ECU, 


-ea, 







3. Termination in ooq. 

1. Adjectives in 6og are contracted throughout like those 
in eog. In the feminine 6r\ is contracted into r\, and in the 
neuter plural 6a into a. 

2. When the letter p precedes the termination, the fem- 
inine is in 6a contracted a. But the adjective adpooq, 
" crowded" is not contracted in the feminine ddpoa, to dis- 
tinguish it from the adjective aOpovg, " noiseless," which is 
of two terminations. 



arrXoog, contr. airXovg, " simple? 



Singular. 



Dual. 



N. 


drrTi-oog, 


-on, 


-6ov, 


N. 


dizT^-oco, 


-6a, 


-oco, 


G. 


ovg, 
dtt'k-dov, 


-ovg, 


ovv, 
-6ov, 


G. 


arcl-SoLv, 


a, 
-daw, 


10, 
-OOLV, 


D. 


ov, 

CLTtX-OG), 


ye, 

-6y, 


ov, 


D. 


olv, 
dirTi-ooiv, 


alv, 
-datv, 


olv, 
-dotv, 


A. 


CO, 

dizTi-oov, 


-onv, 


-GOV, 


A. 


olv, 
diOwOG), 


alv, 
-da, 


olv, 

-OG), 


V 


ovv, 
dnX-de, 

OV, 


7JV, 

*6n, 
y> 


OVV, 
-GOV, 
0$V. 


V. 


dizX-oco, 

CO, 


a, 

-da, 

a, 


CO, 

-dco, 

CO. 



ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 



5i 



Plural. 



N 


dir%-6oi, 


-6ai, 




01, 


at, 


G. 


drrl-ouv, 


-6o)v, 




uv, 


C>v, 


D. 


dizTi-ooig, 


-oacg, 




olg, 


aig, 


A. 


a7T?i-6ovg, 


-Sag, 




ovg, 


ag, 


V. 


dlzk-OOl, 


-oat, 




01, 


at, 



4. Termination in ag. 

1. Adjectives in ag have aiva in the feminine, and av 
in the neuter ; but participles in ag have the feminine in 
aaa. 

2. The adjective nag, " all" " every" is declined like a 
participle. 



N. fisX-ag, 
G. fikTi-avog, 
D. fj-sX-avi, 
A. fieX-ava, 
V. jusl-ag, 



\iiXag, " black" 



-aiva, 

-aivng, 

-aivn, 

-atvav, 

-acva, 



-avog, 
-avi, 



Dual. 

N. peX-ave, -aiva 
G. jLtel-dvocv, -aiva 
D. fieX-dvocv, -aiva: 
A. \iek-ave, -aiva 
V. [xeX-ave, -aiva 



N. [ikTi-aveg, 
G. /neX-dvuv 
D. \ii\-aai, 
A. fie?^-avag, 
V. /xE/x-zveg, 



Plural, 
-aivat, 
-acvcJv, 
-aivaig, 
-aivag, 
-atvai, 



-ava, 

-dvuv, 
-aai, 
-ava, 
-ava. 



rv^ag, " having struck" 



Singular. 
N. Tinp-ag, -aaa, 
G. Tvip-avrog, -dang, 
D. rvip-avTi, -dan, 
A. ruip-avTa, -aaav, 
V. rvip-ag, -aaa, 



-av, 

-avrog, 

-avri, 



Dual. 
N. rvip-avre, -daa, 
G. Tvifj-dvroiv, -daa. 
D. rvifj-avTOiv, -daa> 

A. TVIp-aVTE, -{' 

V. TVTJj-avre, 



Plural. 

N. rmp-avreg, -aaai, -avra, 

G. Tvxjj-dvrtjv, -aa&v, -dvrov, 

D. rmjj-aai, -daaig, -aac, 

A. Tvip-avrag, -daag, -avra, 

V. rvTp-avreg, -aaat, -avra. 



-ave, 

-aVOLV, 

-dvocv, 

-ave, 

-ave. 



-awe, 
-dvroiv, 

-awe, 
-avre. 



52 



ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 



nag, " all," " every. ' 



Singular. 



N. 


Traf, 


Truaa, 


tcuv, 


G. 


Traxrof, 


Trdung, 


Tvavrog, 


D. 


Tzavri, 


Tracy, 


ivavri, 


A. 


irdvTa, 


Tvaaav, 


TTO.V, 


V. 


7raf, 


ivaaa, 


Tzav. 



Dual. 

N. irdvTE, irdaa, irdvTS, 

G. ndvTOiv, Trdaaiv, Trdvroiv, 

D. Txdvroiv, irdaaiv, iravroiv, 

A. rravre, Tzdaa, ttuvte, 

V. ttuvte, ndaa, irdvTE. 



Plural. 

N. Txavrsg, Ttaaac, irdvTa, 

G. TrdvTtov, rcaauv, TrdvTcov, 

J). Tract, Trdaatg, Tract, 

A. Trdvraq, irdaaq, Tzdvra, 

V. Trdvreg, Txduat, Txdvra. 



5. Termination in eig. 

Adjectives in eig make the feminine in eaaa and the 
neuter in ev. Participles in ecg make the feminine in eiaa. 



%apiecg, " comely" 



Singular. 
Xapi-eiQ, -Ecoa, 
%api-£VToc, -eooris, 
Xapi-evTt, -soar/, 
Xapi-evra, -saaav, 
Xapi-ei, \ 

Or > -£(7(7(2, 

Xapi-ev, S 



-evrog, 
-tvri, 



Dual. 
Xapt-evre, -eaaa, 



-evTe, 
. x a P L '^ VTOlv i -EGcatv, -evroLv, 
D. x a P l -^ VTOlv i -scaatv, -evrocv, 
A. x a pi- evT£ > -iaca, -errs, 

V. x a p' l - evre > -EGca, -EVTE 



N. x a P' L ~ tvrz £i 
G. x a P L -& v T uv i 
D. x a P L ~ eai i 
A. x a P'-- £VTa C, 
V. x a pl- £VT£ C> 



-Eocai, 
-eggCjv, 
-sacatg, 
-saaag, 
-Eacai, 



rvcpdetg, " struck" 





Singular. 






Dual. 




N. 


TVtyd-Etg, -Eloa, 


-EV, 


N. 


TV<pd-ivT£, -Eica, 


-ivre, 


G. 


TV(pd-£VTOg, -ELGrjQ, 


-EVTOg, 


G. 


TV<pd-SVTOtV> -ELOaiV, 


-EVTOtV, 


D. 


Tvipd-svTL, -Elan, 


-EVTL, 


D. 


TV(f>d-EVTOtV, -Etaatv, 


-EVTOtV, 


A. 


rv(j)d-EVTa, -staav, 


-EV, 


A. 


TV(j)d-£VT£, -una, 


-EVTE, 


V. 


TV<pd-sig, -Etca, 


-EV. 


V. 


TV(pd-£VT£, -Etaa, 


-EVTE. 



ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 



53 



Plural. 



N. 


rv(pd-svreg, 


-eiaat, 


-evra, 


G, 


Tl'ipd-EVTUV, 


-eta&v, 


-evruv 


D. 


TV(j)6-eiGL, 


-eiaatg, 


-elat, 


A. 


rv<t>d-Evrag, 


-eiaag, 


-evra, 


Y. 


rvqd-evreg, 


-etaat, 


-evra. 



The termination qeig, belonging to this head, is often 
contracted. Thus, -r\Eig, -rjeoaa, -rjev, are contracted into 
-rjg, -rjGoa, fjv ; as, for example, 

N. rifi-yc, Tiji-rjaaa, rtfi-rjv, 

G. 7l\L-T\VT0g, Tl(Ji-7)(707]g, TLIl-TjVTOg, &,c. 

6. Termination in tjv. 

Adjectives in t\v have the feminine in eiva and the neu- 
ter in ev. Of these, however, we find only one form exist- 
ing in Greek, namely, reprjv, repecva, repev. 



reprjv, " tender" 





S 


ngular. 






Dual. 




N. 


rsp-rjv, 


-eiva, 


-ev, 


N. rep- eve, 


-eiva, 


-eve, 


G. 


rep-evog, 


-eivqg 


-evog, 


G. rep-evotv 


-eivatv, 


-evotv, 


D. 


rep-evt, 


-eivrj, 


-evt, 


D. rep-evotv 


-eivatv, 


-evotv 


A. 


rep-eva, 


-ecvav 


, -ev, 


A. rep-eve, 


-eiva, 


-eve, 


Y. 


rep-ev, 


-eiva, 

N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 
V. 


-ev. 

Plu 
rep-ev eg, - 
rep-evuv, - 
rep- eat, 
rep-evag, - 
rep-eveg, - 


V. rep-ev e, 

ral. 

etvat, -eva, 
etvuv, -evuv, 
eivaig, -eat, 
eivag, -eva, 
Etvat, -eva. 


-eiva, 


-eve. 



7. Termination in oetg, contracted ovg. 

Adjectives in oetg are contracted throughout, and form 
the feminine in oeooa, contr. ovcaa, and the neuter in oev, 
contr. ovv. 

E 2 



ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 





fieXiroecg, contracted iieXirovg, 


" made 


of honey." 




Singular. 






Dual. 




N 


fieXir-oeig, 


-oeaaa, 


-6ev, 


N. jxeTitT 


-oevre, 


-oeaaa, 


-oevre, 




ovg, 


ovaaa, 


ovv, 




ovvre, 


ovaaa, 


ovvre, 


G 


fxelir-oevrog 


-oeaarjg, 


-oevrog, 


G. [xeTicr-oevTOtv, 


-Seaaaiv, 


-Sevron 




ovvrog 


ovaang, 


ovvrog, 




OVVTOLV, 


ovaaaiv, 


ovvron 


D 


fieXir-oevn, 


-oeaan, 


-oevri, 


D. \ie\ir-6evroiv, 


-Seaaaiv, 


-oevroii 




OVVTC, 


ovaan, 


OVVTl, 




OVVTOLV, 


ovaaaiv, 


ovvroii 


A 


fieXir-oevra, 


-oeaaav, 


-oev, 


A. jieTiLT-oevre, 


-oeaaa, 


-oevre, 




ovvra, 


ovaaav, 


ovv, 




ovvre, 


ovaaa, 


ovvre, 


V. 


fielir-oev, 


-oeaaa, 


-oev, 


V. fielir 


■oevre, 


-oeaaa, 


-oevre, 




ovv, 


ovaaa, 


ovv. 
Flu 


ral. 


ovvre, 


ovaaa, 


ovvre. 






N. [LtklT 


-oevreg, 
ovvreg, 


oeaaai, 
ovaaai, 


-oevra, 
ovvra, 










G. ueXir 


oevrov, 

OVVTCOV, 


Seaaov, 
ovaaov, 


-oevrov 
ovvrov 










D. fiel.LT 


-oeai, 
ovai, 


Seaaaig, 
ovaaaig, 


-oeai, 
ovai, 










A. \xe\ir 


■oevrag, 
ovvrag, 


Seaaag, 
ovaaag, 


-oevra, 
ovvra, 










V. fielir 


-Sevrec;, 
ovvreg, 


oeaaai, 
ovaaai, 


-oevra, 
ovvra. 







8. Termination in ovg uncontr acted. 
This form belongs to participles, and makes the feminine 
in ovoa and the neuter in ov. 



dove., " having given. 



N. dovg, 
G. dSvr-og, 
D. dovr-i, 
A. dSvr-a, 
V. dovg, 



Singular, 
dova-a, 66v, 
dova-ng, dovr-og, 
dova-y, dovr-i, 
dova-av, 66v, 
dova-a, dSv. 



Dual. 



N. dovr-e, dova-a, dovr-e, 

G. dSvr-oiv, dova-aiv, dSvr-otv, 

D. dSvr-oiv, dova-aiv, dSvr-oiv, 

A. dovr-e, dova-a, dovr-e, 

V. dovr-e, dova-a, dovr-e. 



Plural. 



N. dovr-eg, dova-ai, dovr-a, 

G. dSvr-ov, dova-ov, dSvr-ov, 

D. dova-i, dova-aig, dova-i, 

A. dSvr-ag, dova-ag, dovr-a, 

V. dovr-eg, dova-ai, dovr-a. 

9. Termination in vg. 
I. Adjectives in vg make the feminine in eta and the 



ADJECTIVES OP THREE TERMINATIONS. 



55 



neuter in v. They also contract el into el, and eec and eag 
into elg. 

2. Participles in vg make the feminine in vaa and the 
neuter in vv. 



rjdvg, " sweets 



Singular. 



Dual. 



N. 
G 
D 


7]d-V£, 

qd-sog, 

Tjd-El, 
EC, 


-eta, 
-stag, 
-eta, 


-V, 

-£og, 
-ei, 

EL, 




N. 
G. 

D. 


r]8-£e, 
i]6-eoLv, 

?)6-£OCV, 


-Eia, 
-Etatv, 

-eiaiv 


A. 
V. 


7]6-VV, 


-elav, 
-eta, 


-V, 
-V. 


Ph 


A. 
V. 

ral. 


tjo-ee, 
rjd-ee, 


-Eta, 
-eia, 








N.i/d- 
G. 
G. ?7(5- 


isg, 
£ig, 

ECJV, 


-etat, 

-El&V, 


-£a, 

-EUV, 










D.r/6 
A. r]6 


tat, 
sag, 


•eiaig, 

-eiag, 


-EG l, 

-£a, 





V. qd-Esg, 



^evyvvg, 
Singular. 
N. &vyv-vg, -vaa, -vv, 
G. ^EVyv-vvrog, -vang, -vvrog, 
D. &vyv-vvTi, -van, -vvn, 
A. ^Evyv-vvra, -vaav, -vv, 
V. frvyv-vg, -vaa, -vv. 



joining. 

Dual. 

N. ^EVyV-VVTE. 

G. &vyv-vvTO, 

D. ^EVyV-VVTO, 
A. ^EVyV-VVTE. 
V. ^EVyV-VVTE, 



■vaa 
v, -vaa i 
vaa, 
■v ra 
•i aa 



-wre, 
-vvroiv, 

-VVTOCV, 

-VVTB, 

-VVTE. 



Plural. 
N. ^Evyv-vvTEg, -vaai, 
G. ^Evyv-vvruv, -vativ, 
D. &vyv-vai, -vaacg, 
A. ^Evyv-vvrag, -vaag, 
V. ^Evyv-vvreg, -vaat, 



-vvra, 

-VVTOV, 

-vat, 

-vvra, 

-vvra. 



10. Termination in cov. 
The termination in G)v makes ovaa in the feminine and 
ovin the neuter. ' There are but two adjectives of this ter- 
mination, namely, eitcov, with its compound aeiccov, con- 
tracted by the Attics into anuv. All the other forms in ov 
are participles, 



56 



ADJECTIVES OP THREE TERMINATIONS. 



eic&v, " willing." 



Singular. 






Dual. 




N. ktc-uv, -ovaa, 


-ov, 


N 


ek-ovtb, -ovaa, 


-ovre, 


G. etC-OVTOg, -OVang, 


-OVTOg, 


G. 


ia-ovTOLv, -ovaaiv, 


-ovtolv, 


D. Ik-ovtl, -oven, 


-OVTL, 


D. 


la-ovTOiv, -ovcaw, 


-ovtolv, 


A. ka-ovra, -ovaav, 


-ov, 


A. 


fa-ovre, -ovaa, 


-owe, 


V. £k-uv, -ovaa, 


-ov. 


V. 


in-ovre, -ovaa, 


-owe. 



Plural. 

N. eK-ovreg, -ovaai, -ovra, 

G. ka-ovruv, -ovauv, -ovtuv, 

D. ia-ovac, -ovoaig, -oval, 

A. en-ovrag, -ovaag, -ovra, 

V. en-ovreg, -ovaaL, -ovra. 

tvtttgjv, " striking" 
Singular. Dual. 



N. tvttt-ov, -ovaa, -ov, 
G. TviTT-ovTog, -ovang, -ovrog, 

D. TVTTT-OVTL, -OVan, -OWL, 

A. TVTTT-ovra, -ovaav, -ov, 
V. tvttt-uv, -ovaa, -ov. 



rvKT-ovre. 



N. 

G. TVTfT-OVTOi 

D. TVKT-OVTO. 

A. TVTTT-OWe. 

V. TVTTT-OWe, 



-ovaa, -ovre, 
v, -ovaaiv, -ovtolv, 
■ovaaiv, -ovtolv, 
ovaa, -ovre, 
ovaa, -ovTe. 



Plural. 
N. TVTTT-ovTeg, -ovaaL, -ovra, 

G. TVTTT-OVTUV, -OVaOJV, -OVTUV, 

D. TVTTT-OVai, -ovaaig, -ovaL, 
A. TVTTT-ovrac, -ovaag, -ovra, 
V. TVTTT-ovreg, -ovaaL, -ovTa. 

Some participles in cov, contracted from do)v, make the 
feminine in CJoa and the neuter in £)v. Thus : 



TLfidcdv, contracted tljigjv, " honouring" 
Singular. Dual. 



N. 


Ti\i-duv, 


-dovaa, 


-dov, 


N. 


TLfi-dovre, 


-dovaa, 


-dovrs, 




uv, 


uaa, 


uv, 




uvre, 


(baa, 


UVTS, 


G. 


TLji-aovTog, 


-dova?jg, 


-dovTog, 


G. 


TLjJL-aOVTOLV, 


-dovaaiv, 


-aOVTOLV, 




uvrog, 


dang, 


uvTog, 




UVTOLV, 


uaaiv, 


UVTOLV, 


D. 


Tlfi-doVTL, 


-dovan, 


-UOVTL, 


D. 


TLjJL-doVTOLV, 


-dovaaLV, 


-aOVTOLV, 




UVTL, 


(bay, 


UVTL, 




CiVTOLV, 


uaaiv, 


UVTOLV, 


A. 


Tifi-dovra, 


-dovaav, 


-dov, 


A. 


TLjl-aOVTe, 


-dovaa, 


-dovre, 




uvra, 


uaav, 


uv, 




uvre, 


uaa, 


uvre, 


V. 


TL[l-6tOV, 


-dovaa, 


-dov, 


V. 


TLfl-doVTE, 


-dovaa, 


-dovrs, 




uv, 


uaa, 


Cn>. 




uvre, 


uaa, 


UVTS. 



ADJECTIVES OP THREE TERMINATIONS. 



57 



Plural 



N 


rtfi-dovreg, 


-aOVGCU, 


-dovra, 




uvreg, 


tiuai, 


iovra, 


G. 


rcfc-dovTuv, 


-aovGcov, 


-aovrcov, 




GJVTOV, 


(jiC&V, 


G)VTG)V, 


D. 


rifc-dovat, 


-dovcacg, 


-dovai, 




uci, 


tiaatg, 


£hji, 


A. 


rcfx-dovrag, 


-dovaag, 


-dovra, 




tivrag, 


uaag, 


Ctvra, 


V. 


TLji-dovreg, 


-dovoac, 


-dovra, 




uvreg, 


tiaat, 


dvra. 



1 1 . Termination in we. 
This termination also belongs to participles. The fem- 
inine is in via and the neuter in 6g. 



T£~V(j)Gjg, " having struck" 



Singular. 



N. rervQ-wg, 
G. ~ETV(j)-6rog, 
D. rervty-ori, 
A. rervip-ora, 
V. rerv(p-6g, 



-via, -og, 

-viag, -brog, 

-via, -on, 

-vlav, -6g, 

-via, -6g. 



Dual. 
N. rerv<j>-6r£, -via, -ore, 
G. rervcp-orocv, -vcaiv, -brotv, 
D. rervty-oroLv, -viatv, -brow, 
A. Terv(j)-6r£, -via, -ore, 
V. rervtp-ore, -via, -ore. 



Plural. 



N. rervcp-oTsg, -viae, -bra, 

G. rervip-brcov, -vttiv, -bruv, 

D. rervty-oGi, -viatg, -bcu, 

A. rerv(j)-6rag, -viag, -or a, 

V. rervep-oreg, -vlai, -bra. 

The syncopated forms of the perfect participle active, 
however, make the feminine in (baa and the neuter in tig. 
Thus : 



£<7rc5c, " having stood" 





Sir 


gular. 






B 


ual. 




N. 


kor-iog, 


-fica, 


~6g, 


N. 


tar-tire, 


-6aa, 


-core, 


G. 


lor-urog, 


-uovg, 


-drag, 


G. 


Eor-uroiv, 


-tiaacv, 


-uroiv, 


D. 


kar-un, 


-UGtJ, 


-uri,, 


D. 


icr-uroLv, 


-tiaaiv, 


-tiroiv, 


A. 


iar-ura, 


-uaav, 


-6g, 


A. 


tar-tire, 


-daa, 


-(ore, 


V. 


lor-ug, 


-uoa, 


■d>g. 


V. 


icr-tire, 


-uaa, 


-UTS. 



58 



ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 



Plural. 

N. iar-tirEg, -uaai, -tJra, 

G. kcT-uTov, -uauv, -utcjv, 

D. iar-cJaL, -(doaig, -uai, 

A. iar-urag, -ucag, -ura, 

V. icT-UTEg, -boat, -dra. 



2. ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 
1. Termination in oq. 
evdoi-og, " glorious" 



Singular. 
N. Ev6o^-og, -og, 
G. kv86^-ov, -ov, 
D. kvdoij-C}), -a, 
A. lv6o^-ov, -ov, 
V. lvdo^-e, -e, 



Dual. 
N. evdoZ-o, -co, 
G. evdot;-OLV, -oiv, -oiv, 
D. evSoij-oiv, -OIV, -OLV, 
A. ev6o^-o), -0), -co, 

V. Evdog-O), -G), -6>. 

2. Termination in ag. 
decvag, "perpetual" 



Plural. 
N. Evdog-oi, -oi, -a, 
G. kvdo^-tov, -(OV, -av, 
D. kvdotj-otg, -oig, -oig, 
A. kvdotj-ovg, -ovg, -a, 
V. ev6o^-oc, -oc, -a. 



Singular. 
N. aslv-ag, -ag, 
G. asiv-avTog, -avrog, 
D. aslv-avTi, -avn, 
A. aslv-avra, -avra, 
V. dsiv-av, -av, 



Dual 

N. UELV-aVTE, 

G. asiv-uvToiv. 

D. uELV-dvTOLv, -avroiv, -avrocv, 
A. uEtv-avTE, -avTE, -avre, 
V. aziv-avTE, -avrs, -avrs. 



aVTE, -aVTE, 

dvroLV, -avrocv, 



Plural. 



N. CCELV-aVTEg, 


-avTEg, 


-avra, 


G. ascv-avTov, 


-aVTUV, 


-dvruv, 


D. dslv-acrc, 


-act, 


-act, 


A. aELv-avrag, 


-avrag, 


-avra, 


V. asiv-avrsg, 


-avrsg, 


-avra. 



3. Termination in t\v. 
app7]v, " male." 



Singular. 
N. ap'p'-Tjv, -rjv, 
G. dpfi-svog, -svog, 

D. Up'p'-EVl, -EVC, 

A. ufijS-Eva, -Eva, 
V. ufifi-sv, -sv, 



Dual. 

N. apfr-Eve, -eve, -eve, 

G. Clpp-SVOlV, -EVOIV, -evolv, 

D. app-evoiv, -ivow, -evolv, 

A. ufa-EVE, -EVE, -EVE, 

V. U^-EVE, -EVE t -EVE. 



ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 



59 



Plural. 

N. afifi-eveg, -EVEg, -eva, 

G. cipp'-svcov, -evuv, -evuv, 

D. app'-Eoi, -eat, -eat, 

A. app'-evag, -Evag, -eva, 

V. u.pp'-EVEg, -eveg, -eva. 



4. Termination in rjg. 
Adjectives in rjg of two terminations undergo contrac- 
tion, changing eog into ovg ; el into el ; ea and ee into 
r\, &c. 









aXr\Qi\g, 


" true" 








Singular. 








Dual. 




N. 


ciknd-rjg, 


-vg, 


-&, 




N. aln6-£s, 


-EE, 


-EE, 


G. 


d?i7]6-Eog, 


-tog, 


-Eog, 




V, 
G. aknd-Eoiv, 


-EOIV, 


-EOIV, 


D. 


ovg, 


ovg, 

-EL, 


ovg, 

-El, 




olv, 

D. aknd-EOiv, 


olv, 

-EOIV, 


olv, 

-EOIV, 




el, 


eZ, 


El, 






olv, 


olv, 


olv, 


A. 


akrjd-ea, 


-m, 


-&, 




A. aknQ-EE, 


-EE, 


-EE, 


V. 


V, 
alvd-ig, 


V, 


-sg. 




V, 
V. alnd-is, 


V, 
-EE, 


V, 
-EE, 














V, 


y, 


y> 










Phi 


ral. 














N. akrfi 


eeg, 


-eeg, 


-ea, 












G. alvd 


elg, 

■eav 

uv 


Eig, 

-ECJV 
€)V, 


V, 

-EUV, 
&V, 












D. bXrfi- 


ea, 


-EGl, 


-£ai, 












A. aknd 


ear, 


-eag, 


-£a, 












V. aknd 


eig, 
eeg, 
eig, 


eig, 
-EEg, 
Eig, 


V, 

-sa, 

V- 







5. Termination in ig. 
ev^aptg, " acceptable? 



Singular. 

N. Evxap-tg, 
G. Ev%ap-irog, 
D. Evxap-iTi, 
A. Evxdp-ira. 



or 

-IV, 

V. evxap-t, 



-irog, 
-it i, 
-ira, ) 



-irog, 



Dual. 



N. 


Evxap-iTS, 


-ire, 


-ire, 


G. 


Evxap-irotv, 


-irow, 


-ITOIV, 


D. 


Evxap-iroiv, 


-iroiv, 


-iroiv, 


A. 


EVXap-lTE, 


-ITE, 


-ITS, 


V 


EVXdp-LTE, 


-ire, 


-ire. 



60 



ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 



Plural. 



N. EVXap-LTEQ, 


-tree, 


-ira, 


G. evxap-iTov, 


-CTUV, 


-tTO)V, 


D. evxdp-ioi, 


-IOL, 


-ICL, 


A. evxdp-nag, 


-crag, 


-ira, 


V. evxdp-treg, 


-creg, 


-ira. 



6. Termination in ovg. 

Adjectives in ovg of two terminations have the accu- 
sative singular in -oda or -ovv, and the vocative in -ovg 
or -ov. 

diirovg, " two-footed" 





Singular. 


Dual. 




N 


d'm-ovg, 


-ovg, -ovv, 


N. din-ode, 


-ode, 


-ode, 


G. 


den-odog, 


-odog, -odog, 


G. dnr-6dow, 


-bdotv, 


-odocv, 


D. 


diTZ-odl, 


-odi, -ode, 


D. dnr-odow, 


-bdoiv, 


-bdoiv, 


A. 


din-oda, \ 


-oda, \ 










or [ 


or > -ovv, 


A. din-ode, 


-ode, 


-ode, 




-ovv, ) 


-ovv, ) 








V, 


din-ovg, ) 


-ovg, i 










or i 


or > -ovv. 


V. din-ode, 


-ode, 


-ode. 




-ov, ) 


-ov, ) 

Plu 
N. diff-odeg, 
G. dt7r-66o)v, 

D. dlTT-OGL, 

A. diiz-odag, 
V. dirc-odeg, 


ral. 

-oSsg, -oSa, 
-oduv, -66uv, 
-oai, -oat, 
-odag, -oda, 
-odeg, -oda. 







7. Termination in vg. 
Adjectives in vg of two terminations contract vsg and vag 



into vg. 



adaicpvg, " tearless." 



Singular. 
N. adanp-vg, -vg, -v, 
G. addap-vog, -vog, -vog 
D. adanp-vl, -v'i, -vl, 
A. adanp-vv, -vv, -v, 
V. adanp-v, -v, -v. 



Dual. 



N. dddfep-ve, -ve, -ve, 

G. ddanp-vow, -vow, -vow, 

D. ddanp-vow, -vow, -vow, 

A. addnp-ve, -ve, -ve, 

V. add/cp-ve, -ve, -ve. 



ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 



61 



'Plural. 

N. ctddicp-veg, -veg, -va, 

vg, vg, 

G. ada/tp-vuv, -vov, -vov, 

D. addnp-vat, -vat, -vat, 

A. addicp-vag, -vag, -va, 



V.&& 



>veg, -veg, -va. 



8. Termination in (ov. 



<7(x)(/)pG)v, " discreet." 



Singular. 
N. au<j)p-uv, -ov, 
G. aoipp-ovog, -ovog, 
D. a6(j>p-ovt, -ovt, 
A. ao<\>p-ova, -ova, 
V. aofp-ov, -ov, 



Dual. 



N. a6(j>p-c 
G. aaipp-ovo 
D. ao<pp-6vo> 
A. ad^p-ove, 
V. ad<j>p-ove, 



Plural. 



N. adcpp-oveg, -oveg, -ova, 

G. aotyp-ovov, -bvov, -bvov, 

D. adtyp-oat, -oat, -oat, 

A. ad<f>p-ovag, -ovag, -ova 

V. adxpp-oveg, -oveg, -ova. 



-ove, 



-ovt, 



v, -ovotv, -ovotv, 

-ovotv, -ovotv, 

-ove, -ove, 

-ove, -ove. 



Under this same head fall comparatives in ov, which 
are declined like cticppcov, except that they are syncopated 
and contracted in the accusative singular, and in the nom- 
inative, accusative, and vocative plural. Thus : 

[lelfav, "greater." 



Singular 






Di 


ial. 




N. fiei^-ov, 


-ov, 


-ov, 


N. (zei^-ove, 


-ove, 


-ove, 


G. fiei^-ovog, 


-ovog, 


-ovog, 


G. /xe tC,- ovotv, 


-ovotv, 


-ovotv, 


D. fiei^-ovt, 


-ovt, 


-ovt, 


D. fiet^-ovotv, 


-ovotv, 


-ovotv, 


A. ftet^-ova, \ 


-ova, \ 


-ov, 








-oa syncope, > 


-oa, > 




A. fiei^-ove, 


-ove, 


-ove, 


-o crasis, ) 


-O, ) 










V. fiei£-ov, 


-ov, 


-ov. 


V. {/.ei^-ove, 


-ove, 


-ove. 



62 



ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 



Plural 



N. fiEt£-ovsg, ) 


-ovEg, \ 


-ova, 


-OEg, syncope, > 


-oeg, £ 


-oa, { 


-ovg, crasis, J 


-ovg, ) 


-co, [ 


G. flEtC^-OVCOV, 


-ovcov, 


-ovcov, 


D. [lEt^-OGt, 


-oat, 


-oat, 


A. fiEt^-ovag, -\ 


-ovag, \ 


-ova, 


-oag, syncope^ 


-oag, £ 


-oa, 


-ovg, crasis, h ) 


-ovg, ) 


-co, < 


V. ft£t£-ov£g, ' -\ 


-ovEg, J 
-osg, i 


-ova, 


-osg, syncope, > 


-oa, 


-ovg, crasis, ) 


-ovg, ) 


-CO. [ 



9. Termination in G)p. 
fieyaXTjTCdp, " magnanimous." 



Singular. 
N. (isyaTirjT-cop, -cop 
G. ftsyal^T-opog. 
D. fiEya\r]T-opt, 
A. jiEyaTiTjT-opa, 
V. jXEydlvT-op, 



-opog, 
-opt, 
-opa, 
-op, 



-op, 

-opog, 

-opt, 

-op, 

-op. 



Dual, 

N. iiEyaXrjT-opE, 
G. fiEyaTirjT-opotv, 
D. (jtEydXrjT-opotv, 
A. [iEya7tf)T-op£, 
V. iiEyaTi-fjT-opE, 



-ope, -ope, 

-opotv, -opotv, 

-Spotv, -opotv, 

-ops, -ops, 

-ope, -ope. 



Plural. 

N. fiEya'XrjT-opEg, -opeg, -opa, 

G. \iEya"knr-6pcov, -opcov, -opcov, 

D. iisya'krjT-opo't, -opai, -opat, 

A. HEyalrjT-opag, -opag, -opa, 

V. [.teyaTirjT-opEg, -opsg, -opa. 



10. Termination in wg. 
svyeuc;, "fertile." 



Singular, 
N. evys-cog, -cog, 
G. Evye-co, -co, 
D. evys-cp, -u, 
A. Evys-cov, -cov, 
V. Evye-cog, -cog, 



-cov, 
-cov. 



Dual. 

N. EvyE-co, -co, -to, 

G. evys-cov, -cov, -cov, 

D. Evys-cov, -cov, -cov. 

A. evye-co, -co, -co, 

V. evye-co, -co, -co. 



Plural. 



N. evye-co, 
G. evye-cov, 
D. evye-cpg, 
A. evye-cog, 
V. evye-y, 



-9, 
-cov, 

-9f» 



ADJECTIVES OF ONE TERMINATION. 63 

3. ADJECTIVES OF ONE TERMINATION. 

Adjectives of one termination, namely, which express 
the masculine, feminine, and neuter by one and the same 
ending, are the cardinal numbers from nevrs, "Jive" to 
etcarov, " a hundred" both inclusive. 

Others have indeed only one termination, but for the 
masculine and feminine merely, since they are not used 
with substantives of the neuter gender, at least in the nom- 
inative and accusative singular and plural. They are 
properly of the common gender, wanting the neuter. 1 
Such are, 

1. Adjectives compounded of substantives which remain 
unchanged ; as, [iafcp6%eip, avroxeip, evptv, {latcpaiov, fia- 
tcpav%7jv, from %&ip, ptv, al&v, and av^v, except those 
compounded of Trovg and noXtg, which have two termina- 
tions. 

2. Adjectives in cop, which are partly derived from irarrip 
and \Li]Tr\p\ 3,s,ajrdTG)p, d^rcjp, diioiirjrcjp ; and partly from 
verbs; as, TTaiSoXercop, bfioyeveTup, fudGrcop. 

3. Adjectives in ?]g, genitive -qrog, and in 0)g, genitive 
-ctrog; as, ddjjirjg, 7]\xiQvf\g, ay vug, c5/zo6pc5c. 

4. Adjectives in nrjg and rr\g, according to the first de- 
clension; as, evcJnrjg, edeXovrrjg. 

5. Adjectives in £ and if), as, r{Xi%, <polvi%, alyiXiip, aldcoip. 

6. Adjectives in ag, genitive -adog, and in ig, genitive 
-idog; as, <f>vydg, dvaXfag. 

ANOMALOUS ADJECTIVES. 

1. Originally some adjectives had two forms, of both of 
which certain cases have been retained in use, so that the 

1. Some of these, however, are also used as neuters, but only in the 
genitive and dative singular and plural ; as, a/j,<pLrpfjrog avXcov, Soph. 
Philoct. 19 ; h irevrjri oufiaTi, Eurip. El. 375 ; a-KTrjaLV tekegi, Euen. 
Epigr. 13. In other words, the neuter, when necessary, is supplied by 
derivative or kindred forms ; as, fthaiwiov, apiranTiKov, ftcowxov, &o, 



64 



ANOMALOUS ADJECTIVES. 



cases which are wanting in one form are supplied by those 
of the other. Of this kind are \iiyag or jieydXog, and rro- 
Xvg or noXXog. 

2. From (isydXog, the feminine \iEydXr] has remained in 
use throughout, as well as the entire dual and plural, and 
the genitive and dative masculine and neuter of the singu- 
lar number. The remaining cases, the nominative and ac- 
cusative singular, masculine and neuter, are taken from [ie- 
yag. 

3. In TzoXvg, the feminine and the dual and plural num- 
bers are entirely taken from noXXog. 





[tsyag, 


'great." 






Singular. Dual. 




N. fisyag, 


[isydln, 'fiiya, 


N. fieydlo), fieydla, 


ueydlo, 


G. /xeydXov, 


fieydlng, [ieydXov, 


G. fieydTiocv, /xeydlaiv, [teydloiv, 


D. fcsyd?i,o), 


fieydXy, fceydTia), 


D. fzeydhoiv, jieydlaiv, fieydloiv, 


A. fj-eyav, 


fieydlnv, fieya, 


A. [xeryaku, fieydla, 


jxeydlu, 


V. fieyag, 


[leydln, fieya. 


V. fieydhc), jj-eydla, 


fieydXu. 




Plural. 






N. jxeydTioi, fteydXat, fieyaXa, 






G. fj,eyd?MV, fteydlov, peydXuv, 






D. /xeydloig, [isydTiaig, /neydloig, 






A. fisydlovg, [leydlag, [isydTia, 






V. fieydXoi, fieydhat, /neydTia. 






iroXvg, "much." 1 






Singular. Dual. 




N. 7T07lVC , 


izoXkri, rrolv, 


N. TToTlkd), TToXXd, 


ttoX2,6, 


G. ttoHoi 


, TzoXkr/g, rroTiXov, 


G. Tzollolv, no?JiaZv, nolhoZv, 


D. 7TO/l/l<p 


TtoXlrj, 'KoTCXib, 


D. noTikolv, TcolXatv, ttoTCXoZv, 


A. ttoXvv, 


KoWriv, woXvy 


A. noTJid), TtoKkd, 


tzoWu, 


V. 7ro/ly, 


-KoXhrj, TToTiv. 


V. 7T0A/UJ, TTO/l/ld, 


TtoKku. 




Plural. 






N. TToTJioi, iroTChai, iroTCkd, 






G. tto?i?mv, iroXX&v, TcoTikuv, 






D. noTCkoig, noTJkaZg, noTikoZg, 






A. TTO?Jiovg, TtoXkdq, noTikd, 






V. TToTJ^oi, TToXkai, TtoTikd. 





1. Many forms from rrolvg occur, however, in the poets. Thus, the 
genitive noMog, II. 4, 244; the nominative plural -rroMeg, U. 2, 610; 
the genitive plural tcoMuv, M. 5, 691 ; the dative nohiaiv, II. 4, 388, &c 



REMARKS ON THE TERMINATIONS OF ADJECTIVES. 65 

The adjective aXXog is anomalous only in this, that it has * 
%XXo in the neuter instead of dXXov. 

REMARKS ON THE TERMINATIONS OF ADJECTIVES. 

1. Adjectives in -aloe;, having the vowel i before alog, 
denote magnitude or value, and are derived from the names 
of measures, weights, coins, and denominations of money ; 
as, 7rr)%vLalog : " a cubit long ;" iroScalog, " a foot long ;" 
raXavnalog, " costing a talent ;" &c. Those in alog, on 
the other hand, which have not i before alog, generally de- 
note the place where something has originated, or to which 
it belongs ; as, Tirjyalog, "proceeding from, 1 " or, " belonging 
to, a fountain " dysXalog, "belonging to a herd;" fcopv- 
(f>alog, " one who is at the heady Some, however, denote 
merely a quality ; as, oeXrjvalog, " moon-shaped ;" elprjvalog, 
"peaceable" 

2. Adjectives in -dXeog mostly express a fulness ; as, 
-dappdXeog, "full of confidence ;" SsifidXeog, "full of fear." 

3. Adjectives in -avog mostly signify the possession of 
the quality expressed by the primitive ; as, Trsvicedavog, 
" bitter ;" piyedavog, " that which causes shuddering." 

4. Adjectives in -eiog commonly express an origin or 
source ; as, n /f] vuo ^i fioetog, InireLog, fiijXetog, &-C," consist- 
ing of" or, " derived from, geese, cattle, horses, sheep," &c. 
Others denote rather an agreement with, or resemblance to, 
a thing ; as, dvdpelog, " becoming a man ;" yvvamelog, " ef- 
feminate," or, " becoming a woman." 

5. Adjectives in -eog, contracted ovg, express the mate- 
rial ; as, xpvGsog, -ovg, " made of gold ;" Xivsog, -ovg, " made 
of linen" &c. 

6. Adjectives in -epog and -rjpog signify quality general- 
ly ; as, doXepcg, " crafty ;" otaepog, " shady," &c. Some 
express a propensity ; as, olvnpog, " given to wine ;" na- 
\iaT7\pog, " laborious" "prone to labour." Others, again, 
have an active signification ; as, voaepog, or voorjpog, " cau- 
sing sickness " o^Xripog, " causing disquiet ;" vyir\pog, " con- 
tributing to health." 

7. Adjectives in -r\Eig signify fulness ; as, devdprjetg, 
"full of trees ;" Troirjeig, "full of grass;" vXrjscg, "full of 
wood." ■ 

8. Adjectives in -r\Xog signify a propensity to, and capa- 
bility or fitness for, anything ; as, dnar^Xog, "prone to de- 

F2 



66 REMARKS ON THE TERMINATIONS OF ADJECTIVES. 

ceit ;" imvrjXog, "prone to sleep " To this the idea of ful- 
ness is nearly allied ; as, vdprjXog, " watery." 

9. Adjectives in -tnog most commonly denote fitness or 
capability for anything ; as, rjyefiovLKog, "Jit for command ;" 
fcvdepvrjTCKog, "Jit for piloting" &c. Other meanings are, 
1. belonging to anything; as, owfiariKOc, "corporeal ;" ipv- 
\inog, "spiritual;" 2. coming from anything; as, narpt- 
tog, " derived from forefathers ," " hereditary ;" (3oln6g, "made 
of ox's hide." 

10. Adjectives in -ip,og are of two classes, one derived 
from nouns and the other from verbs. Those from verbs 
have sometimes an active, sometimes a passive significa- 
tion , as, (pvl-ifiog, " one who fees ;" dX&oi\Log, "pertaining 
to capture ,*" dpG)aijxog, " arable ;" (3p(ooi[iog, " edible." Other 
adjectives in -Lfiog, however, express merely a quality ; as, 
TTEvGcfiog, '* mournjul ;" dotctfiog, " celebrated" &c. 

11. A ujectives in -ivog and -etvog signify, 1. a material 
of which anything is made ; as, yrjivog, " made of earth ;" 
KaXdficvog, ' ' made of reeds ;" irXivdivog, " made of tiles" 
&c. ; 2. a quality which arises from the magnitude or quan- 
tity of the iliing expressed by the derivation ; as, iredivog, 
"level;" opsivog, "mountainous;" onoreivog, "dark," Sic. 

12. Adjectives in -tog express a quality generally ; as, 
eOTTepwg, "pertaining to evening'" ftaXdooiog, "marine " 
CG)T7]piog, " saving." If two adjectives are derived from 
one substantive, one in Log and the other in og, the latter 
expresses a quality generally ; the former denotes a prone- 
ness or tendency to that quality; as, nadapog, "pure;" 
Kaddpiog, " loving purity." 

13. Adjectives in -oetg and -coecg signify a fulness ; as, 
p/nrioeig, "full of prudent counsels ;" dpmzXoEig, "full of 
vines." The termination tieig is used when the penult is 
long ; as, K,r}T&ug, G)ro)etg, &c. 

14. Adjectives in -udrjg express, 1. a fulness ; as, iroi- 
(odrjg, "grassy ;" dvdefiu)67jg, "fiowery ;" 2. a resemblance ; 
as, <j<fir]KG)dr}g, " wasplike ;" <pXoyG)67]g, " shining like fre ;" 
dvdpo)dr\g, " manly." In this sense these adjectives coin- 
cide with those in -oetoY/c, and are probably formed from 
them. 

15. Adjectives in -G)Xog signify a propensity or tenden- 
cy to anything ; as, dfiapro)X6g, "prone to sin;" ipevduXog, 
"prone to lying.' 9 



DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 67 

DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 

1. The property expressed by an adjective can usually 
be attributed to more objects than one. Yet it is seldom 
found exactly to the same extent in one as in another, but 
it is possessed by one in an usual degree, by another in a 
higher or in a pre-eminent degree. 

2. Now, if one and the same property be attributed to 
two different objects, and these be compared with each 
other in reference to the measure of this property, there 
arises a new form of adjective, namely, the comparative. 

3. But, if a property exists in many objects, and one of 
them is to be distinguished as possessing this property in 
the greatest degree, this is also effected by a new form, 
called the superlative. 

4. These two forms are called degrees of comparison ; 
and, for the sake of uniformity, a corresponding appella- 
tion has also been given to the simple form of the adjec- 
tive, namely, the positive. Strictly speaking, however, the 
positive is no degree of comparison, but merely the primi- 
tive form, on which the comparison is based. 

FORMATION OF THE DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 

I. The degrees of comparison are formed from the pos- 
itive ; namely, the comparative, by appending the termi- 
nation -repog, a, ov ; and the superlative by appending -ra~ 
rog, rj, ov. 

II. These terminations are appended to the root of the 
positive in the following manner : 

1. Adjectives in og and vg throw away c; as, 6sLv6g i 
detvorepog, deivorarog ; evpvg, evpvrepog, evpvrarog. 

If the penultimate syllable of adjectives in og is short in 
the positive, then o is changed into w in the comparative 
and superlative ; as, oo<pog, Gocfxorepog, Gocp&rarog ; icaOa- 
pog, (cadapcorepog, fcadaptirarog. 1 

I. This rule about the penult of the positive appears to have been 



DO FORMATION OF THE DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 

2. Adjectives in eog, contracted ovg, form their compar 
ative and superlative regularly from the uncontracted pos 
itive, and then undergo contraction ; as, nop(pvpeog, contr 
7Top<pvpovg, compar. nopcpvpe&repog, contr. , nop§vp&repog i 
superl. TTopipvpsdjrarog, contr. Tropcpvpurarog. 

3. Adjectives in oog, contracted ovg, append -earepog, 
-eararog, to the root, and always contract this termination 
with the syllable that precedes ; as, evvoog, contr. evvovg, 
compar. (evvoearepog) evvovarepog ; superl. {evvoeararog) 
evvovararog. 

4. Adjectives in -ag, cava, av, append repog and rarog 
to the neuter ; as, \ieXag, \ieXdvrepog, \ieXdvrarog. 

5. Adjectives in 7]g and eig shorten these terminations 
into eg, and then append repog and rarog ; as, dXrjdrjg, 
akr\Bearepog, dXr\Qeararog ; %ap£eig, xaptearepog, ^apiec- 
rarog. 

6. But adjectives in 7]g, genitive ov, of the first declen- 
sion, annex tarepog and vararog to the root ; as, fcXeTrrrjg, 
tcXenrtarepog, nXenriararog. 

7. Adjectives in G)v append earepog and eararog to the 
root ; as, acixppcjv, genitive aoxfipov-og, compar. aaxppovea- 
repog, superl. aG)(ppoveararog. 

8. Adjectives in r\v annex eo-repog and eararog to the 
neuter ; as, reprjv, repevearepog, repeveararog. 

9. Adjectives in £ append iarepog and iararog to the 
root, and sometimes earepog and eararog ; as, apnat;, gen- 
itive dpnay-og, compar. apnayiarepog, superl. apnayiara- 
rog ; d(prjXi^, genitive a<br\ki\i-og, compar. a<pr}XiKearepog, 
superl. dcf)7]X[,Keararog. 

III. Some dissyllabic adjectives in vg and pog reject 

caused by the conditions of hexameter verse, the oldest measure in the 
Greek language, and by which that language itself was first formed. 
Thus, for example, a comparative in orepog, with the preceding syllable 
short, consequently """, would not have been admissible into the hexam- 
eter. The same objection would apply to a comparative in GJrepoc, with 
the preceding syllable long (except where another long syllable went be- 
fore the latter), since the result would be w " " \ 



EXCEPTIONS TO THE PRECEDING RULES. 69 

these terminations, and use, in their stead, lo)v (neuter lov) 
for the comparative, and larog, r\, ov for the superlative. 
Thus, yXvttvg, yXvnloyv, yXvfaarog ; aloxpog, aloxlov, 
alaxiorog. 

1. The adjectives compared in the latter way are, how- 
ever, but few in number, neither is this mode of compar- 
ison exclusively used even in their case, since the com- 
mon terminations orepog and vrspog, orarog and vrarog, 
also occur. 

2. Generally speaking, of those in pog, the formation 
lov, larog, predominates only in aioxpog and fydpog ; and 
of those in vg, only in rjdvg and ra%vg. In all the others, 
the regular form must be regarded throughout as the more 
usual. Thus (3pa6vrepog is the more common form, where- 
as f3padiG)v occurs only in poetry. 

EXCEPTIONS TO THE PRECEDING RULES. 

1. Some adjectives in og reject o before rspog and ra- 
rog ; as, yepcuog, yepalrepog, yepalrarog ; rcepalog, Trepal- 
repog, Trepalrarog, &c. The adjective <piXog has for its 
usual forms (plXrepog, (f)lXrarog ; besides which, however, 
(piXairepog, and even the regular (ptXurepog and (ptXtirarog, 
are also found. 1 

2. Other adjectives, instead of o and w, have commonly 
at, or eg, or eg, before the comparative and superlative ter- 
minations ; as, 



ILeoog, 
idcog, 


fjLEGairepog, 
Idtalrepog, 


fieaatrarog, 
IStalrarog, 


7rpo)iog, 


7TpG)tatrepog, 


TrpcjicuraTog. 



eppopevog, eppoyfjievearepog, eppufzeveoraTog, 
a<p6ovog, a(f)6ovsarepog, aepdoveararog, 

dofxevog, aGfieveGrepog, dafieveararog. 

1. The three forms of the comparative and superlative of (piTiog appear 
to have been used by the ancients with a certain distinction in meaning. 
Thus, fyikrepoe and fyikraroq signified " more friendly," " dearest 
friend;" (pcTiaiTepor, " more dear," " more esteemed;" and <pt?,6repoc, 
u more beloved." This distinction, however, has not, in general, been 
strictly observed. Rost, G. G. p. 169. 



70 



IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 



XdXog, 

7TT6)#dc, 



XaXiorepog, 
TTTUxiorepog, 



XaXioraTog, 

TZTG)%lOTaTOg. 



3. In some of the adjectives which make the compara- 
tive in lg)V and the superlative in tarog, the i of the ending 
i(*)v is rejected, and the last letter of the root, if 6, ■&, k, or x> 
changes into cc (Attic rr). Thus, ra%vg (old form 6ax- 
vg), comparative rax^v, changed to -ddoauv, Attic $dr- 
tgjv. So, also, eXaxvg, comparative eXax^v, changed to 
eXdooo)v, Attic eXdrrojv. In the same manner, also, must 
the comparative [idcoodv, of fiaKpog, be explained. 

IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 

I. The comparative and superlative remain in several 
adjectives, whose positive has grown into disuse. These 
are noted most easily in connexion with some extant posi- 
tive, to which they approximate the nearest in respect of 
signification. Hence the following list : 



Great, [teyag, 



Z ti-S, 


' a/jt,SLVG)V, 

dpeicjv, 


apiorog. 




(3eXrco)v, 


peXriOTog* 




(3eXrepog, 


(3eXrdrog. 




Kpecooov, } 




Good, dyadog, « 


fCp£LTTG)V, > 

Kappw, ) 


KpdrtOTog. 




Xcdicov, 


Xcjiarog. 






X&orog. 
(peprarog. 




(psprspog, > 


(pepiorog. 




) 


(pSpTLOTOg. 




' icaKCjrepogj 


Kancorarog, 


Bad. KaKog, < 


nafciojv, 


KaiuoTog. 




Xspeioiv, 


XSpiorog. 




^xupuy, 


Xetpiarog. 


Long, fiattpog, 


i fiaKporepog, 
1 fidaaov, 


[xaKpordrog. 
firjuarog. 



fieyiOTog. 



IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 



71 



[jUKporepog, 
J fieidrepog, 
Small, [iittpog, ^ fieto)v, 

(eXaxvg), eXdoaw, 

\_TI<J<7G)V, 

Much. noXvg, \ . , ' > 

" ( TTAElOdV, ) 

Easy, padwg, paw, 



fieiorog. 

kXdxiorog. 

7\Kiarog. 

nXelarog. 

paarog. 



1. That these various forms were not used in exactly 
the same signification is certain ; but it is also equally cer- 
tain that no settled distinction between them was universal- 
ly observed. 

2. The proper comparative and superlative of dyadog, 
namely, ayadurepog and dyadcorarog, occur only in later 
writers, and such as are not Attic ; as, for example, in Di- 
odorus Siculus, 16. 86. 



II. Some comparatives and superlatives 


are evidently de- 


ived from substantives, adverbs, and 


prepositions. Thus : 


Compar. 


Superl. 






nporepog, 


npoJTog, 


from 


npo. 


vrreprepog, 


vneprarog, 




VTTEp. 


avcorepog, 


dvuTarog, 




avo. 


varepog, 


vararog, 




V7TO. 




fcXeTTTioraTog, 




KXeTTTTjg. 




eratporarog, 




kralpog. 


dovXorepog, 






dovXog 


fiaoiXevrepog, 






fiaoiXevg. 



To these may be added the following comparisons of ad- 



verbs. Thus : 



aw. 


dvOJTEpG), 


dvcjrdro), 


Kara 


KaTCJTEpO), 


KaruraTG), 


e&, 


egurepG), 


Ei;G)TdTG), 


£<76), 


eacjrepcj, 


eaordrcjf 


7rdjopo), 


TTopfxorepG), 


noppcjTdro). 



III. A few instances occur, where, to express a still 



72 NUMERALS. 

higher gradation of an idea, a degree of comparison be- 
comes the positive to a new formation ; as, eoxarog, " last" 
eaxarcJTspog, kaxaroyrarog, " last of all '" Trp&rog, "first" 
Trpo)TC(7Tog, "first of all" " the very first" 

IV. In many adjectives in Greek, as in other languages, 
the formation of a comparative and superlative from the 
root of the positive was not usual, but the gradation of idea 
was expressed by adding the adverbs fidXXov ("more") 
and p&Xiora (" most"). Thus, rpcjrog, " vulnerable" rpo)- 
rog fiaXXov, " more vulnerable ;" tivTjTog, " mortal," tivTyrog 
uaXXov, "more mortal;" drjXog, "evident" [iciXXov 6r\Xog, 
" more evident" drjXog {idXiara, " most evident" 

XXIII. NUMERALS. 

1. Numerals are either Cardinal or Ordinal. 

2. The cardinal numbers answer to the question, " how 
many ?" as, elg, " one ;" dvo, " two ;" rpelg, " three" &c. 

3. The ordinal numbers answer to the question, " which 
in order ?" as, rrpajrog, "first;" devrepog, " second;" rplrog, 
" third," &c. 

4. For marks of number the Greeks employ the letters 
of their alphabet ; but, to make the number complete, they 
insert therein a $■ after e, called enloTjfiov, or Fav, 1 and an- 
swering to our 6 ; and they also adopt two Oriental char- 
acters, namely, Koppa, C^ for 90 ; and Sampi, 2> for 900. 2 

7. When the letters are employed to denote numbers, a 
mark resembling an accent is placed over them ; but to des- 
ignate the thousands the same mark is placed below. Thus, 

1. The appellation criyfia is also sometimes given to this character. 
The name Fav refers to the circumstance of its occupying the place of 

. the digamma in the alphabetic order. 

2. The original mark for the icoinra was <?> whence comes the Latin 
Q. The 2a//7r? is no doubt to be traced back in name to the old name 
for the letter c, namely cav, and appears to have been formed from the 
union of this letter with a tt, the early form of the Greek S having been 
C. Buttman thinks that the earlier name of the numeral in question 
was 2d^, and that 2a//T? came in as an appellation at a later period. 



NUMERALS. 73 

d is one, but a one thousand. So #' is twenty, but ^/e twenty 
thousand. 

8. These marks above and below the letters are not ex- 
pressed in the case of every letter, when we have several 
letters placed side by side, and indicating a series of num- 
bers, but only over or below the last of each series. Thus 
we write vy%$' for 53,602 ; and acjXrj for 1838. 

9. The following combinations may serve as examples 
of the Greek system of notation. 



avis, 1415. 

'#ff£e, 9265. 

'y07r0', 3589. 

&X6', 7832. 



y yo)[ig% 3846. 

\a<pd, 21,501. 

pveoy', 155,203. 

-njdd', 89,004. 



10. In place of this system of notation, the Athenians 
adopted the following, which is far more striking to the 
eye. Thus : 

I, 1, is the mark of unity. 

11, 2, \ 

III, 3, > express the other numbers above 5. 
IIII, 4, ) 
II, 5, is the initial of ILevre. 
A, 10, " Ae/ea, 

H, 100, " HeKarov, the old form for ettarov. 

X, 1000, " xaioc. 

M, 10,000, " Mvpiot. 

The numbers between these are denoted partly by the 
combination of the above marks ; as, All for 12 ; A A for 
20 ; AA AIIIIII for 39 ; and partly by the multiplication of A, 
H, X, M, into five II, these marks being placed within the II ; 
as, J3 for TTevraiiig detta, five times ten, or 50 ; E[A for 
60 ; M for 500 ; M for 5000 ; XMHHHAAAIIIII for 
1838. This manner of notation is particularly to be marked, 
G 



74 



REMARKS ON THE FIRST FOUR NUMERALS. 



since it has been preserved in many and important Attic in- 
scriptions. 1 

DECLENSION OF THE FIRST FOUR NUMERALS. 



Singular. 












Dual. 


elg, " one. 


» 










dvo, " two" 


N. dg, juta, 
G. kvoq, /u&c, 

D. EVi, [lid, 

A. $va, ficav, 


hog 
ivt, 

Iv. 








N. 
G. 
D. 

A. 


dvo and dvo, 
dvolv and dvelv, 
dvolv, 
dvo. 






Plural. 










N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 


dvuv, 
dvci, 







Plural. 
rpelg, " three. 91 

N. rpelg, rpelg, Tpia, 
G. rptuv, rptuv, rpiGsw, 
D. Tpiai, rptai, rpiai, 
A. rpelg, rpelg, Tpia. 



Plural, 
reocapeg, "four." 

N. reaaapeg, reaaapsg, riaaapa, 
G. reooupov, recoupuv, reoaupuv, 
D. TEcaapaL, reaaapai, riaaapoi, 
A. riaaapag, riaaapag, reaaapa. 



REMARKS ON THE FIRST FOUR NUMERALS. 
Elg. 

1. In the epic writers the form la is found for pta ; and 
only once lib for evl. (II. 6. 422.) 

2. From the composition of this numeral with ovde and 
[irjde arise the negative adjectives ovdelg and [irjdelg, which 
are declined in the same manner ; as, nom. ovdelg, ovde- 
uta, ovdev ; genitive ovdevog, ovdefiidg, ovdevog, &c. The 
later Greek writers make it ovdelg and \it]Qelg, from ovre 
and \Lrpe, which, however, is not considered genuine Attic. 

3. Ovdelg and [xrjdelg are often separated, and written 
ovde elg, and \i7\de elg, &c, and this separation increases 
the negative signification. Thus, ovde elg, " not even one " 
ovd' v(p' evog, " not even by one" &c. 

4. The numeral elg, from its very nature, can have no 
plural, but ovdelg and firjdelg have ovdeveg and [i7jdeveg, in 
the sense of " insignificant," " of no value." 

1 . For an account of the arithmetic of the Greeks, consult Delambre, 
Histoire d$ V Astronomie Ancienne, vol. ii., p. 3, seq. 



SYNOPSIS OF NUMERALS. 



75 



Avo. 

1. Avo is the Attic mode of writing. In Homer and 
Herodotus it is often indeclinable. Avecv is of more rare 
occurrence than dvolv, and is only used in the genitive. 
Avc5v is sometimes written dvcov, and regarded as Ionic for 
dvolv. But dvcjv is preferable as a genitive plural. 1 

2. Avo) appears to have been, in fact, the dual number of 
the old form 6v6g. "AjMpoj accords in great measure with 
dvo). In the old poets it is frequently indeclinable. Oth- 
erwise aficpolv is used in the genitive and dative. 

Tiooapsg. 

1. Instead of reoaapeg the Ionic dialect has rsoaepeg, 
the iEolo-Doric rerropeg. Hesychius gives neoovpeg as 
an iEolic form. 

2. For reaaapoi or rerrapat in the dative, the form rer» 
pact, occurs in the poets. 



SYNOPSIS OF NUMERALS. 







Cardinal. 




Ordinal. 


1 


a' 


eIc, 


1st 


Tcpurog, 


2 


P 


dvo, 


2d 


dEvrspoc, 


3 


y 


rpelc, 


3d 


rplrog, 


4 


6' 


Tecoapec, 


4th 


rkraproq, 


5 


e' 


7TEVTE, 


5th 


TTEflTTTOC, 


6 


r' 


If, , 


6th 


£ktoc, 


7 


c 


iiTTa, 


7th 


'iBdofzoc, 


8 


rf 


OKTU, 


8th 


oydooc, 


9 


v 


kvvia, 


9th 


Evvaroc, 


10 


L 


6ma, 


10th 


dsKarog, 


11 


ta 


ivdeKCi, 


11th 


kydsnarog, 


12 


lp 


SuSena, 


12th 


dudeicaToc, 


13 


L Y 


TpioKaidena, 


13th 


TpiGnaifiEKaToc, 


14 


id- 


Teco-apeGKaideica, 


14th 


TEcoapaKaLdiKaTog, 


15 


is' 


7revTenaideKa, 


15th 


TTEVTEKaidEKaTOg, 


16 


L~' 


itcicatdeKa, 


16th 


EKKaidEKarog, 


17 


tC 


ETiTaKaideKa, 


17th 


EizTanaidEnaTog, 


13 


m' 


btcTuKaidena, 


13th 


OKTUKaidsKaTOC, 


19 


t& 


evveanaideica, 


19th 


EWEaKatdEKaTos, 


20 


k' 


eiKoat, 


20th 


ElKGGTOg, 


21 


Ka 


eikoglv elg, 


21st 


ELKOGTOS TZpUTOS , 


22 


Kf>' 


elkogl dvo, &.C., 


22d 


ElKOGTOS dEVTEpOS, 


30 


X 


rpuiKovra, 


30th 


TpiaKOGTOq, 



1. Fassow, Lex. s. v. 



76 



SYNOPSIS OF NUMERALS. 



31 


u 


40 


ft' 


50 


v' 


60 


t 


70 


o' 


80 


it' 


90 


^ 


100 


p' 


200 


c' 


300 


r 


400 


V' 


500 


¥ 


600 


X' 


700 


% 


800 




900 


lb* 


1000 


a 


2000 


ft 


3000 


y, 


4000 


6 / 


5000 


e / 


6000 


r, 


7000 


C 


8000 


V, 


9000 


&, 


10,000 


L / 


20,000 


K, 


100,000 


P, 



rpiaKOvra tig, 


31st 


TptaKOGTOe 7rpCJTO£, 


reaaapaKOvra, 


40th 


TEGGapatiOGTOC, 


TTEVTTJKOVTa, 


50th 


7T£VTT)KOGt6c, 


k^rjKovra, 


60th 


E^KOGTOg, 


£6dofiT/K,ovTa, 


70th 


i66o/J,7}KOGTOg, 


bydorjKovTa, 


80th 


oydorjKOGTog, 


evevrjKOVTa, 


90th 


EVEVTJKOGTOg, 


knarov, 


100th 


huaroGTog, 


6l<xk6oloi, 


200th 


SiaKOGioGTog, 


rptaKoaioi, 


300th 


rpiaKOGiOGTog, 


TeooapaKocioi, 


400th 


TSGGapaKOGlOGTOg, 


TTEVTaKOGLOi, 


500th 


TTEVTaHOGLOGTOg, 


kt-CLKOOlOL, 


600th 


EtjaKOGLOGTOg, 


kliTCLKOOLOl, 


700th 


trcTanoGioGTog, 


OKTOKOGLOl, 


800th 


OKTaKOGiOGTOg, 


kvvanoocot, 


900th 


kvvatcoGioGTog, 


Xikioi, 


1000th 


Xi^ioGrbg, 


SlGXlXlOl, 


2000th 


SiGxihtoGTog, 


TpLGxi^tOi, 


3000th 


TpLGXt2,tOGT6g, 


TSTpOKiGXlhlOl, 


4000th 


TETpaKLGX^lOGTOg, 


TrevraKLaxi^ioi, 


5000th 


TTEVTaHLGX&lOGTOg, 


k^aKiGx'i^toi, 


6000th 


E^aKlGXi^lOGTOg, 


hlXTaKLGXiklOL, 


7000th 


ETTTaKLGX^lOGTOg, 


OKTaniaxihioi, 


8000th 


OKTaKlGX^lOGTOg, 


EVVaKLGXi^lOL, 


9000th 


EVVaKLGXi^iOGTOg, 


fivpioi, 


10,000th 


flVptOGTOg, 


6tGjlvpLOL, 


20,000th 


oiGympioGTog, 


SEKaKlGftvptOl. 


100,000th 


dEKaKlGfJLVpLOGTOg. 


Multipl 


'catives. 


anTiovq,* 


Simple, 


dmTiovg, 


Double, 


rpiTcTiovg, 


Treble, 


TETpairXovg, 


Quadruple, 


TTEvrairTiovg, 


Five fold, 


&c. 


&c. 


Adverbs o 


f Number, 


anal;, 


Once, 


dig, 


Twice, 


rpk, ^ 


Thrice, 


TETp&Kig, 


Four times, 


irevT&iag, 


Five times, 


&c. 


&c 





1. For the declension of aTtlovg, which will serve as a guide to that 
of the rest, see page 50. 



REMARKS ON THE NUMERALS. 77 

REMARKS ON THE NUMERALS. 

1. In compound numbers, either the less are put after 
the greater without a conjunction ; as, slkool rpslg, rpia- 
Kovra itevte ; or, what is most usual, the less precede and 
are connected with the greater by Kai ; as, rpelg Kai elkool, 
7T£vrs Kai rpiaKovra. 

2. So, also, in the more complicated numbers, the sev- 
eral parts are united in such a manner as to proceed from 
the less to the greater ; as, rerrapa Kai kbdo\ir\Kovra Kai 
kvvaKooia Kai rpioxiXia Kai k^aKiOjivpia, which express 
63,974. 

3. For the greater numbers a numeral substantive is 
frequently used with the requisite cardinal number ; as, 
6sKa fivpidSeg, 100,000 ; rpiaxihiGi Kai irevre [ivpiddeg, 
53,000, &c. 

4. In the case of tens compounded with 8 or 9, the defi- 
nition is often given by subtraction ; as, rpiaKovra dvolv 
deovroiv or deovra, 28 ; oydorjKOvra evog deovrog, 79 ; or, 
if a substantive of the feminine gender stands therein, \iidg 
deovarjg. 

5. Of the cardinal numbers, the first four and the round 
numbers from 200 are alone declined. All the rest are 
indeclinable. 

6. The Latin distributives are expressed in Greek by 
compounding the cardinal numbers with gvv ; as, ovvdvo, 
" two by two ;" avvrpeig, " three by three" &lc. 

7. Besides the forms of ordinal numbers which have just 
been given in the synopsis, two ordinals are also frequently 
connected by Kai ; as, ireimrog kol dsKarog ; bydoog Kai 
dexarog, &c. 

8. The smaller ordinal number is also sometimes pre- 
fixed to the greater cardinal or ordinal with Kai and a prep- 
osition ; as, rrj ektij eni 6eKa, supply rjfiepaig, " on the sixth 
in addition to ten days" i. e., " on the sixteenth." So, also, 
Ty eKrr] p,er J eiKada, " on the twenty-sixth" &c. 

9. In order to express half or fractional numbers in mon- 
ey, measures, and weights, the Greeks used words com- 
pounded of the name of the weight, &c. (viz., fivd, 66oX6g, 
rdXavrov), with the adjective termination ov, iov, alov, 
and t\\ii, " half" and placed before them the ordinal number 
of which the half is taken. Thus, reraprov r\\iirdXav- 
tqv, " 3£ talents" i. e., the first a talent, the second a tal- 

G2 



78 PRONOUNS. 

ent, the third a talent, the fourth a half-talent. So, also, 
rplrov rjfjLLfivalov, " 2f mince," e66o[iov rjnidpaxpov, " 6f 
drachma" 

10. From the foregoing, however, we must carefully 
distinguish such phrases as the following : rpia 7]\Lvrd- 
Xavra, " If talents" i. e., three half-talents ; irevre r\\ii\i- 
vala, " 1\ mines" &c. 

11. From the ordinal numbers are derived, 1. Numerals 
in alog, which commonly answer to the question, " on what 
day 1" as, rpiralog, " on the third day ;" deaaralog, " on the 
tenth day." 2. Multiple numbers in -(pdoiog (besides those 
already mentioned in -nXovg) ; as, dupdoiog, Tpc<pdoiog, 
&c. 3. Proportionals, answering to the question, "how 
much more V as, dinXaGtog, rpnxXdoiog, rerpaTrXdatog, 
*' twice, thrice, four times as much." 

XXIV. PRONOUNS. 
All pronouns serve to supply the place of a noun, but, at 
the same time, they give different relations of the substan- 
tive which they represent. According to these relations 
so expressed by them, they are divided into the following 
classes : 

1. Personal Pronouns, which express the simple idea of 
person, and directly represent the same. These are, 

eyw, J, 
ov, thou, 
ov, of him. 

2. Possessive Pronouns, which are formed from the per- 
sonal, and indicate the property of an individual ; as, 



efi-og, 


-& 


-ov, 


mine, 


aog, 


G7], 


GOV, 


thine, 


?', 


y, 


OV, 


his, 


rjfierep-og, 


-a, 


-ov, 


our, 


vfierep-og, 


-a, 


-ov, 


your. 


G(f>erep~og, 


-a, 


-ov, 


theif, 


VG)irsp-og, 


-a, 


-ov, 


of us both, 


G(pG)trep-og, 


-a, 


-ov, 


of you both 



PRONOUNS. 79 

3. Definite Pronoun, for the nearer and stronger distinc- 
tion of one object from another ; as, avrog, avrrj, avro, " he 
himself" " she herself" M itself'' 

4. Reflexive Pronouns, for the more accurate indication 
and separation of a person ; as, 



epiavrov, e\Lavrr\g, of myself 
ueavrov, 

aavrrjg, of thyself 
aavrov, 
eavrov, 

avTTJg, avrov, of himself 



r ov, ) 

ov, ) 
rov, ) 
| \ 



ovrog, 


aVTT], 


rovro, 


ode, 


rjde, 


rode, 


eicelv-og, 


-n> 


-0, 



5. Demonstrative Pronouns, which distinctly point out 
the object of which we are discoursing, with the accessory 
idea of place. These are, 



this. 



6. Relative Pronouns, which refer to an object already 
mentioned, and give it a nearer definition ; as, 

og, t\, o, who, 

bang, rjrcg, on, whoever. 

7. Indefinite Pronouns, which merely indicate an object 
generally, without farther definition ; as, 





rig (encliti 
delva, 


:<=), 


rig, 
delva, 


n, 
delva, 


any, 
some one. 


8. 


Interrogative 


Pronoun ; as 


j 






rig, 


rig, 


ri, 


who? 


what ? 



9. Reciprocal Pronoun, which designates the mutual ac- 
tion of different persons upon each other; as, aXkr\koiv, 
dual; aXXrjXov, plural, " of each other." 



80 



INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS. 



INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS. 







1. Personal. 










'Eyw, /. 








Singular. 




Dual. 


N. kyu 

G. EflOV 

D. kfiol 
A. tye 


or fiov 
or fioi 

or fie . . 


J, 

of me, 
to me, 
me. 


N. vat, 
G. vuiv, 
D. vuiv, 
A. vcji, 


contr 


vu, we two, 
vuv, of us two, 
v&v, to us two, 
vu, us two. 






Plural. 










N. rjfielg 
G. ^//wv . 

A. jy/zag' . 


. of us, 
. to us, 

. KS. 







2v, thou. 



Singular. 

N. ov thou, 

G. gov of thee, 

D. gol to thee, 

A. Ge thee. 



Dual. 
N. o<piol, contr. gQu), you two, 
G. GcpcJiv, " G(p£>v, of you two, 
D. G<pulv, " c^div, to you too, 
A. G<pul, " o^>w, yow /wo. 



N. i)/*e2£ . 
G. vuuv 

D. tJ/MV 

A. fytaf 



Plural. 



you, 
of you, 
to you, 
you. 



Ov, of him. 



Singular. 
N. Wanting. 
G. o£ . . . of him, 
D. ol ... to Aim, 
A. £ ... Aim. 



N. G<pa>& . they two, 

G. Gtpuiv . of them two, 

D. G^utv . to /Aem too, 

A. G<pue . them two. 



Plural. 
N. (T0£?f, neuter c^ea, *Aey, 
G. Gtp&v, of them, 

D. GtyiGi, to them, 

A. c^af, neuter G<pea, them. 



INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS. 



81 



Singular. 



2. Reflexive. 
'Efiavrov, of myself. 



N. (eyw avrog), (kyu avrff), 
kfiavrfjg, 



Plural. 



G. kfiavrov. 
D. k/xavrfi, 
A. eixavrov, 



kfiavTrj, 
kfcavr^v. 



N 



Tjfielg avroi, rjfielg avrai, 
G. tjh&v avruv. 
D. rjfuv avrolg 
A ' 



i][j.G)v avrfiv, 

7jfj.lv avralg, 

r)fidg avrovg, TffJag avrdg. 



Xsavrov, of thyself 

Singular. 
N. (ov avrog), (ov avrr)), 

G. oeavrov or oavrov, oeavrrjg or oavrfjg, 
D. oeavrti or oavrcb, oeavry or oavrff, 
A. oeavrov or oavrov, ceavrrjv or oavrov. 



Plural. 



N. v//etf avroi, 
G. ipv avrdv, 
D. v^o" avrolg, 
A. v^udf avrovg, 



vfitlg avrac, 
vuuv avruv, 
ifj.lv avraig, 
vfidg avrdg. 



N. (avrdf), 
G. Oavrov or avrov, 
D. eavnp or avr<p, 
A. kavrbv or avrov, 



N. (o(j>elg avroi), 
G. kavr&v or avruv, 
D. iavrolg or avrolg, 
A. iavrovf or avrovg, 



f ~EavTOv, of himself 

Singular, 
(avrif), 

iavrrjg or avrrjg, 
iavry or avr77, 
iavrfjv or avrrjv, 

Plural, 
(otyelg avrai), 
kavr&v or avrtiv, 
kavralg or avraig, 
kavrdg or avrdf, 



(avrd), 

eavrov or avrov, 
iavrC) or avr<p, 
£avrd or avrd. 



(<70ea avrd), 
iavruv or avr&v, 
iavrolg or avrolg, 
iavrd or avrd. 



3. Demonstrative. 
Qvrog, this. 



Singular. 

N. ovrof, avr?7, rovro, 

G. rovrov, ravrng, rovrov, 

D. rovro), ravrn, rovro, 

A. rovrov, ravrnv, rovro. 



Dual. 



N. rovro, ravra, rovru, 

G. rovroiv, ravraiv, rovroiv, 

D. rovroiv, ravraiv, rovroiv, 

A. rovrw, ravra, rovru. 



82 



INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS. 



Plural. 
N. ovroi, avrai, ravra, 

G. TOVTOV, TOVTOV, TOVTOV, 

D. rovroig, ravTcug, TOuToig, 
A. Tovrovg, TavTag, TdVTa. 

4. Relative. 
"Og, who, which, what. 



Singular. 

N. bg, rj, b, 

G. ov, rig, ov, 

D. (1), y, o, 

A. ov, 7]v, b. 



Dual. 

N. o, a, o, 

G. olv, alv, olv, 

D. olv, aiv, olv, 

A. o, a, d. 



Plural. 



N. oi, at, 

G. d)v, ov, 

D. olg, alg, 

A. ovg, ag, 



oig, 



"Oong, whoever. 



Singular. 



Dual. 



N. boTig, f]Tig, OTl, 

G. OVTLVOQ, TfCTLVOq, OVTLVOQ, 

D. OTIVl, yriVl, OTIVl, 

A. bvTiva, rjvTLva, on. 



N. OTIVE, urive, OTlV€, 

G. olvTLVOLV, alvTLVOlV, olvTIVOI V, 

D. OIVTIVOIV, alvTLVOlV, OiVTlVOlV, 

A. UTIVE, UTIVE, OTIVE. 



Plural. 

N. oZro'ef, alrivsg, uTiva, 

G. ojvrtvwv, wvnvwv, ovtivov, 

D. oloTioi, alcTioi, oIgtioc, 

A. ovanvag, uarivag, uTiva. 



5. Indefinite, 
rig, any. 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 

N. Tig, rig, ti, IN. tive, tive, tive, IN. Tivkg, Tivig, Tivd, 

G. Tivog, Tivog, rwofjG. tivoiv, tivoiv, tivoiv, \G. tivov, tiv&v, tivov, 

D. rivi, Ttvi, Tivi, D. tivoiv, tivoiv, tivoivXD. tioi, Tiai, Tioi, 

A. Tivd, Tivd, tl. |A. tive, tive, tive. (A. Tivdg, Tivdg, rivd. 



kelva, a certain one. 







Singular. 




N. 


o, 


V, 


TO 


Ssiva, 


G. 


TOV, 


rye, 


TOV, 


dslvog, 


D. 


TO, 


T Vi 


TO, 


OEIVI, 


A. 


TOP, 


TTjV, 


TO 


OEiva. 



Dual. 

N. to, Ta, t6, Seive, 

G. TOIV, TdlV, TOIV, Sfivoiv, 

D. toiv, Tatv, toiv, Seivoiv, 

A. to, rd, to, Aeive. 



REMARKS ON THE PRONOUNS. 83 

Plural. 
N. 61, al, deiveg, 

G. T&V, TUV, 6eiVG)V, 

D. rolg, rale, deiGt, 
A. Tovg. Tag, delvag. 

6. Interrogative. 
The interrogative differs from the indefinite rig merely 
in the position of the accent. The indefinite is always en- 
clitic, and, in the oblique cases, takes the accent on its 
ending. On the contrary, the interrogative, even in a con- 
nected discourse, remains always acuted in the nominative, 
and in the oblique cases preserves the accent on the radical 
syllable. 

rtCj who? 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 

've, |N. riveg, riveg, riva, 

'■VOLvAG. TIVUV, TLVUV, TIVUV, 
'.VOLV, D TIG I, TIG I, TIG I, 

A. rivag, rivag, riva. 



N. rig, Tig, 

G. Ttvog, rivog, 

D. rivi, rivi, 

A., riva, Tiva, 



|N. rive, rive, 
vog, IG. tcvoiv, tcvolv, ti 
D. rivocv, rivoiv, ti 
'A. rive, rive, 



7. Reciprocal. 

Dual. Plural. 

N. 



N. Wanting. 

G. aXkrj'koiv, aXkrfkaw, uXkifkoiv. 
D. uXkrfkoiv, aXkrfkaiv, uXkrfkoiv, 
A. aX2,r]?LC), aXkrfka, ak\i]ku. 



G. aXkrfkuv, aXkr]7icov, a7Jkrfkuv, 
D. uXkifkoLg, uXkrfkaig, aXkifkoig, 
A. ItXkrfkovg, LXkrfKag, a7Ckrj7.a. 



REMARKS ON THE PRONOUNS. 
1. Personal. 

1. The forms efiov, efwl, kfie, are employed whenever 
emphasis is required. On other occasions /zov, fiol, and 
fie are employed. 

2. In the dual number the forms v6, vtiv ; o<p(D, CHptiv, 
are Attic. 

3. In the plural, rjfielg and v/ielg appear to have come 
from rjfieeg and vfieeg ; while, in the dative, r\\iXv and v\ilv 
are contracted from Tj/jLeoi, vfiiot, and then the v tyehnva- 
tucov is appended. 



84 DIALECTS OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

4. The pronoun ov is generally reflexive in the Attic 
writers. In Homer and Herodotus, on the contrary, it is 
more frequently a mere personal pronoun. 

5. Avrog, avrr\, avro, was used for the third person, 
but with this distinction. In the nominative always, and 
in the oblique cases when these begin a clause, it has a 
reflexive signification, " he himself" " she herself" " of 
himself" &c. But when the oblique cases do not begin a 
clause, they have merely the force of the personal pronoun, 
" him" " of him" &c. When the article precedes, as 6 
avrog, 7] avrr\, &c, the meaning changes to " the same" 
&c. Thus, 6 avrog, " the same man;" r] avrrj, " the same 
woman;" ro avro (contracted most commonly ravro), " the 
same thing" 

Dialects of the Personal Pronouns. 

1. The iEolo-Doric had eydjv, the iEolic eyov, in the 
nominative. The Boeotians said Icjv. 

.2. Instead of ov the iEolians and Dorians said rv 
(whence the Latin tu), and changed a into r throughout. 

3. In order to give more expression to the pronouns, the 
Dorians and iEolians annex r\ to the termination, through 
all the cases, and sometimes, also, vtj ; as, ky&vr), epevvrj, 
rvvrf, &c. The Attics annex ye, throwing back the ac- 
cent ; as, eywys, ovye ; instead of which the Dorians use 
ya, as ky&vya. 

4. In the genitive only e/xeo is found, not fj,eo ; and, in 
the lyric and epic poets, ejielo and aelo ; as also efiedev 
and oedev ; these latter, likewise, in the tragic dialect. As 
the Attic dialect contracted eo into ov, the Ionic, Doric, 
and iEolic contracted the same into ev ; as, sped, oev. 

5. In the dative, the iEolians and Dorians said also k\iiv 
and riv, whence rivr\, and the Tarentine eaivrj, arose. 
For the enclitic cot the epic poets and Herodotus use rot. 

6. In the dual the forms vg), v&v ; o<pG), afitiv, are Attic. 
In the plural, rjuslf and vfislc. come from rjassg and vfiesg. 
Instead of r\\iEiq the iEolians and Dorians said a\itq or afisg, 
and a//fi£C ; and for vaelg, vusq and vfi/ieg. 

7. The genitive plural is lengthened by the poets into 
rjfieioyv, vueiodv. The iEolians and Dorians changed as 
usual the rj into a ; as, dfxeov, au&v, and dfifj,o)v. 

8. In the dative plural, the old dialect, and the iEolie 



REMARKS ON THE PRONOUNS. 85 

and Doric, had aplv, d\iiv, a\ilv, a\i\Li ; vfiiv, vfi[u, and 

9. In the accusative plural, the Dorians said ape, ape, 
and appe, appe ; and also vpe, vppe, the latter being used 
likewise by the iEolians. 

10. Instead of the accusative avrov, we find, particularly 
in the poets, the form ptv of all three genders. Another 
form is vtv, which occurs in Pindar, and is the only one 
employed by the tragedians. This form viv is also used 
for avrovg, avrdg, avrd. 

11. The dative acpt for cfyici occurs in Homer and else- 
where. The tragedians appear to have used c<pLV alone. 
The poets sometimes, though very rarely, employ it for the 
dative singular also. 

12. In the poets, too, the form ocpe (abbreviated from 
ocpGje) occurs, which is sometimes used as the accusative 
plural in all genders, for avrovg, avrdg, avrd ; and some- 
times, also, as the accusative singular, instead of avrov, 
avrrjv, avrd ; and also, again, as a pronoun reflexive for 
eavrov. 

2. Possessives. 

1. The form eog, erj, eov, occurs only in the singular in 
the Ionic and Doric writers, and in the poets. Instead of 
this is used the abbreviated form 6g. Neither eog nor bg is 
ever employed by the Attic prose writers ; but bg for eog 
occurs several times in the tragedians. 

2. Instead of rjiierepog, the Dorians employed d\iog. 
This same a\iog was likewise used for e\iog, as rjfielg for 
eyw. The iEolians said appog and dfiperepog. 

3. The form ocperepog is used by the later Alexandrian 
poets for the pronoun possessive of the first and second 
person plural, and in one instance even for epog. 

4. The form o<f>G)trepog occurs only once [II. 1, 216). 
Nutrepog is found only in the Ionic poets. 

3. Pronoun Definite. 

This has already been considered in the remarks under 
the personal pronouns, § 5, &c. 
H 



86 REMARKS ON THE PRONOUNS. 

4. Reflexives. 

1. The reflexive pronouns are formed by the union of 
the genitives kfieo, Geo, eo, with the pronoun avrog, in all 
the cases except the nominative. 

2. Strictly speaking, efiavrov and Geavrov have no plu- 
ral. A form for this number, however, is generally substi- 
tuted, consisting of rjfielg avroi and v[ielg avroi, declined 

eparately. 

3. The pronoun eavrov is declined throughout the plural 
«.« one word ; yet we also find G<pcov avrcjv, ocpioiv avrolg 
<Kpdg avrovg, &c. 

4. Properly, according to the composition, only the gen- 
itive of these pronouns should have been in use ; and it is 
owing to an arbitrary usage that efieo, &c. are compounded 
with the dative, accusative, &c, of avrog. 

5. Among the Attics, these pronouns are reflexive only, 
referring to the person implied in the verb, without any 
particular emphasis derived from avrog. Thus, ervipa 
euavrov, " / struck myself" (as, in English, " I wash my- 
self"). When the Attic writers, on the other hand, wish 
to make avrog emphatic, they separate the pronouns, and 
place avrog first. Thus, rcpbg avrov ae, " against thee thy 
self." A similar usage prevails in Homer and Herodotus. 

5. Demonstrative. 

1. Instead of ode, r\6e, rode, where the enclitic 6e is an- 
nexed to the article, in order to give it greater force, the 
Attics say bdi, t]6l, rodi, which is analogous to the Latin 
hicce. 

2. Homer annexes the termination of the case to the fie ; 
as, roladeoi, rolodeooc, &c. 

3. Instead of rolode, the form roialSe is common in the 
tragic writers, with the accent on the penult, because the 
enclitic 6e draws the accent of the principal word to itself. 

4. Ovrog is used as an emphatic mode of address, and, 
therefore, as a vocative, " thou there" like the Latin heus. 

5. The Attics annex i to this pronoun in all cases and 
genders, to give a stronger emphasis, in which case it re- 
ceives an accent ; as, rovrovt, ravrrfi, &c. In the neuter, 
this i takes the place of o and a ; as, rovri, ravri. 

6« The Attics sometimes used rovrov for rovro^ roaov- 



REMARKS ON THE PRONOUNS. 87 

rov for roaovro, rotovrov for rotovro. This appears to 
have arisen from their attachment to the v e^eXuvortnov. 
In the same way, the Attics frequently said ravrov for to 
avro. 

6. Relative. 

1. Homer says b rtg for bang, where o is a prefix sylla- 
ble, as in birolog, oTroaog, &c, and he retains, with the rest 
of the Ionic writers, the 6 unchanged in all the cases ; as, 
brev for ovrtvog, otsg) for cdrtvt, &c. The Attics retained 
similar forms in the genitive and dative singular, namely, 
brov for ovrtvog, and 6ro> for &tlvl. The full form is very 
rare in the Attic poets. 

2. Instead of the plural ariva, Homer and Herodotus 
have aaoa, from the Doric od for rtvd. The Attics, instead 
of this, say arret. 

7. Indefinite. 

1. The Ionians said for rivog, nvi, &c, reo and rew. 
The Attics contracted rov, rw, in all the genders, for rivog 
and nvi. 

2. Instead of the neuter plural rtvd, the Attics said, in 
certain combinations, particularly with adjectives, drra ; 
as, &XX* drra ; rotavr' drra. 



88 



XXV. VERB. 

1. Greek verbs are of two kinds, those ending in cj and 
those in fit. 

2. Verbs in G) are of two classes : 1. Those that hare a 
consonant before 6) ; as, rvnro), " i" strike ,*" Xeyu, " I 
say ;" and, 2. Those which have a vowel, a, e, o, before 
it ; as, TL[id(t), " I honour ;" fakeo, " I love ;" %pvo6(d, " / 
gild." 

3. Verbs in o), with a consonant preceding the termina- 
tion, are called Barytone Verbs, because, as they have the 
acute accent on the penult of the present, the grave accent 
((3apvg rovog) necessarily falls on the last syllable. 

4. Verbs in w, preceded by a vowel, are called Contract- 
ed Verbs, because the 0) is contracted by the Attics, to- 
gether with the preceding vowel, into one vowel ; and as, 
after this contraction, a circumflex is placed over the o>, 
they are also styled by some Circumflex Verbs. 

5. These contracted verbs, however, are not at all differ- 
ent from the barytones, since it is only necessary to con- 
tract them in the present and imperfect. 

PARTS OF THE VERB. 

1. The Greek verb has three voices, Active, Passive, 
and Middle ; and five moods, the Indicative, Imperative, 
Optative, Subjunctive, and Infinitive. 

2. The tenses are nine in number, namely, the Present, 
Imperfect, Perfect, Pluperfect, First and Second Future, 
First and Second Aorist, and, in the passive, the Third 
Future, or, as it is less correctly styled, the Paulo-post' 
futurum. 

3. The numbers are three, Singular, Dual, and Plurah 



89 





The Verb 'Ei/u, to be. 






INDICATIVE MOOD. 






Present Tense. 




Sing, eIui, I am, 

Dual. 

Plur. kc/iiv, we are 


etc or el, thou art, 
karov, you two are, 
, here, ye are, 

Imperfect, tjv, I was. 


kari, he is. 

karov, they two are. 

eloi, they are. 


S. 7jV, 

D. 

P. TjUEV, 


T/TOV, 

rjre, 
Future, laouai, I will be. 


7] or TjV, 

7JTTJV, 

rjaav. 


S. laouai, 
D. ecoueBov, 
P. kcousda, 


ecei, 

ececOov, 

ecscOe, 


lazrai, 

iaec6ov t 

iaovrai. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present and Imperfect, lade, be thou. 



D. 
P. 



ladi or lao t 


earn, 


karov, 


karov, 


fare, 


karuaav. 



OPTATIVE MOOD. 
Present and Imperfect, elrjv, may I be. 
S. eItjv, elrjc, e"v, 



D. 
P. 


eitj/xev, 


slr/rov, 
elr]TE, 


EifjTr}v % 
£L7]aav or 


elev. 




Future, 


kcot/ir}v, may 


I be about to be. 




S. 
D. 
P. 


haoifxrjv, 

kaoiuEdov, 

kooipeda, 


ECOIO, 

kaoiadov, 
ego tade, 


kcOLTO, 

kaoiadrjv, 
kaoevro. 





SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present and Imperfect, u, I may be. 



S. u, 


vc, 


f' 


D. 


TjTOV, 


7]T0V t 


P. UflEV, 


7JTE, 


uau 



H2 



90 VERB. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present and Imperfect. 

elvai, to be. 

Future. 
lazcBai, to be about to be. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. 

N. &v, ovaa, 6v, 

G. ovtoc, ovarjg, ovto£, &c. 

Future. 

N. kao/j-evoc, haojjiivrj, kcofievov, 

G. kao/xevov, kcofievqg, kao/xivov, &c 

VERBS IN a. 

1. There are four conjugations of verbs in o, distin- 
guished from each other by the termination of the first fu- 
ture active. 1 Thus : 

The First Conjugation makes the future in ijjgj ; as, 

TVTTTG), TVIpG) ; XsiTTG), XellpG) l pdnrG), pdlpG). 

The Second Conjugation makes the future in |iw ; as, 
Xeyo), Xei-G) ; rddooj, rdt-G) ; dpx^), api;G). 

The Third Conjugation makes the future in ao ; as, 
rto), tlcfg) ; Treido), ttslgo) ; OKevd^G), oicevdoG). 

The Fourth Conjugation has a liquid before 6) in the 
termination of the future ; as, ipdXXb), iftaXC) ; oird- 

p6), GTTEpG) ; fieVG), flSVO). 

2. When the first person plural ends in fiev, the first 
person of the dual is wanting. In other words, the first 
person dual is wanting throughout the whole of the active 
form, and in the aorists of the passive. 2 

1. We have followed, for convenience' sake, the common arrange- 
ment, by which verbs in a are divided into four conjugations. The 
simplest and truest plan, however, is to divide all Greek verbs into 
merely two conjugations, namely, verbs in <j and verbs in fit. 

2. Here, again, we have followed the ordinary phraseology. In truth, 



VERB. 



91 



3. In the present, perfect, and future of the indicative, 
which are called primary tenses, and throughout the sub- 
junctive mood, the second and third persons dual are the 
same, and end in ov. 

4. But in the imperfect, pluperfect, and the two aorists 
of the indicative, which are called the historical tenses, as 
referring to what is past, and throughout all the optative 
mood, the third person dual ends always in r\v. 

5. In the active the 3d. plur. of the primary tenses ends in 
gi with the moveable v ; as, -ovaiv, -aaiv ; -ovoi, -aai ; but 
in the historical tenses the form always terminates in a 
fixed v ; as, ov, av, Etaav, qoav. 

6. In the passive, the primary and historical tenses are 
distinguished throughout the singular also, and in all the 
third persons plural. The primary tenses have fiat in the 
first person of the singular, the historical always \ir\v ; and 
where the former have rat, the latter have always to. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

tvtttg), " I strike." 

Present, tv-ktu ; First Future, rvipu ; Perfect, Terv<pa. 1 

Moods and Tenses. 





Indie. 


Imper. 


Optat. 


Subj. 


Infin. 


Part. 


Present, 


TVTTT-0), > 
ETV7VT-0V, > 












Imperfect, 


TVTZT-E, 


-01(11, 


-0), 


-ECV, 


-OV, 


First Future, 


TVlp-O), 




-Ol/Ltl, 




-ELV, 


-UV, 


First Aorist, 


ETVtp-a, 


TVTp-OV, 


-aifiL, 


-u, 


-at, 


-GC, 


Perfect, 


TETVty-a, ) 

krervep-eev, ) 












Pluperfect, 


T£TV(j)-E, 


-01(11, 


-10, 


-Evai, 


-Of, 


Second Aorist, 


ETV7T-0V, 


TVTT-E, 


-OLflL, 


-G), 


-ELV, 


-uv, 


Second Future, 


TV7T-0J, 




-OCflL, 




-ELV, 


-Civ. 



however, the dual is the same in form with the plural, in the tenses re- 
ferred to ; for the dual itself is only an ancient plural. 

1. This is called conjugating, namely, giving the present, first future, 
and perfect of a verb ; or, in place of the perfect, the first aorist. 



92 



Numbers and Persons, 







INDICATIVE MOOD. 








Present, I strike. 




Sing 
Dual 
Plur. 


TV7TT-U, 

TVKT-ouev, 


TVTZT-EIC, 
TV7TT-ETOV, 

TVTCT-ETE, 


TVTVT-El, 

TVTtT-ETOV, 

TVTZT-OVOl. 




Imperfect, J was striking 




S. 
D. 
P. 


Ztvtzt-ov, 

krVKT-OflEV) 


ervrvT-ec, 

ETVTTT-eTOV, 

ervTzr-ere, 


ETVKT-E, 

etvttt-et7jv, 
Itvkt-ov. 




First 


Future, I shall or will strike. 


S. 
D. 
P. 


tvtJj-u, 
Tvip-ofiev, 


Tvip-eic, 
Tvip-erov, 

TVlp-ETE, 


TVtp-EC, 

TVlp-ETOV, 

TVTJJ-OVGL. 




First Aorist, I (once) struck. 


S. 
D. 
P. 


£TV1p-a, 

krvip-afiev, 


irvip-ac, 
krvip-arov, 

ETVlp-aTE, 

Perfect, I have struck. 


ETVlp-E, 
ETVlp-a,T7]V t 

frvip-av. 


S. 
D. 
P. 


T£TV<j>-a, 

T£TV<j>-afiev, 


T£TV(j)-aC f 

TETv^-arov, 

TETVf-aTE, 


T£TV<p-e, 

TETvQ-arov, 

T£TV<j>-aOl. 




Pluperfect, I had struck 




S. 
D. 
P. 


ETETV^-ELV, 

kT£Tv<p-eifiev 


£TETV(j>-EtC, 
£T£TV<p-£lTOV f 

, kreTV^-siTE, 


£T£TV<P-et, 

ET£TV<j>-ECT7JV 

ETETVQ-EiaaV 




Second Aorist, I (once) struck. 


S. 
D. 
P. 


Itvk-ov, 
hrvn-ofiev. 


ETVT-EC, 

£TV1Z-£T0V f 

kTV7T-£T£ } 


£TVTV-ET7]V f 

krvTz-ov. 




Second Future, I shall or will strike. 


S. 
D. 
P. 


TV7T-W, 

Tvn-oi}fiev, 


TVTC-Eie, 

Tvir-eiTov, 
TV-ir-slTe, 


TVTT-el, 
TV1T-etTOV t 

Tvvr-ovau 



VERB. 93 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present, he striking. 

S. TVITT-e, TVTTT-ETO, 

D. TVTTT-ETOV, TV7TT-ETUV, 

P. TVTTT-ETe, TVKT-ETUGaV. 

First Aorist, strike. 

S. rvip-ov, rvip-aTO, 

D. Tvip-arov, Tvip-druv, 

P. TVip-are, rvip-dTuuav. 

Perfect, have struck. 

S. T£TV(f)-E, TETVCJt-ETO), 

D. T£TV(j)-£TOV, TETVQ-ETUV, 

P. T£TV<$>-£T£, TSTV<j>-STUCraV. 

Second Aorist, strike. 

S. TW7T-e, TV7T-ETG, 

D. TV7T-ETOV, TVIT-ETUV, 

P. TVTZ-ETE, TVTZ-ETUaaV. 

OPTATIVE MOOD.i 
Present, may I be striking. 

S. TVTTT-Olfll, TVTTT-OLC, TVTTT-Ol, 

D. TVTTT-OLTOV, TV7TT-01T7]V, 

P. TV7TT-OlfI£V, rVKT-OCTE, TV7TT-OLEV. 

First Future, may I hereafter strike. 

S. TXTlp-OLlXl, TVIp-OlC, TV1p-Ol, 

D. TVXJJ-OITOV, Tvifj-OITTJV^ 

P. TVIp-OLfiEV, TVlp-OLTE, TVIp-OLEV. 

First Aorist, may I have struck. 
S. rvip-aifii, rvip-atc, rvip-ai, 

D. TVTp-atTOV, TV^-aiT1]V t 

P. TVIp-aifiEV, TVIp-aCTE, TVl[)-aiEV. 

JEolic First Aorist. 

S. rvifj-sia, rvTp-ELac, Twjj-eie, 

D. Tvip-siarov, Tvip-Eiarrjv 

P. TVip-stafiEv, Tvip-EcarE, rvrp-eiav. 

1. We have here given to the optative its genuine meaning, as indi- 
cating a wish. The other meanings, " might" " could" " would" &c, 
are only attached to it when connected with the particle av, &c. 



94 



Perfect, may I have struck. 

S. T£TV(j)-Olfll f T£TV<p-0lC, T£TV(j>-0l, 

D. T£TV(p-0lT0V t T£TV(j)-0lTnV, 

P. T£TV<p-OLfl£V, T£TV(j>-OlTE, T£TV<j)-0lEV. 

Second Aorist, may I have been striking. 

S. TVTC-OLflLy TVTV-OLC, TVTT-Ol, 

D. TVTT-OLTOV, TVTT-OITVV, 

P. TVTT-OLflEV, TV7T-OITE, TVTZ-OIEV. 

Second Future, may I hereafter strike. 

S. TVTZ-OLflLj TVTT-OIC, TV7T-01, 

D. tvw-oitov, TVTT-oirnv, 

P. TV7T-01/J.EV, TVTZ-OLTE, TV7T-OIEV. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present, I may strike. 



s. 


TV7TT-U, TVTTT-VC, TV7TT-n, 


D. 


TV7TT-VTOV, TVKT-7JTOV, 


P. 


TV7CT-C)fJ,£V, TVTTT-nTE, TVUT-UOL. 




First Aorist, I may have struck. 


S. 


Tvip-u, TVip-rjc, fity-rii 


D. 


TV1p-T]TOV, TVTp-7JTOV t 


P, 


TVIp-U/XEV, TV1p-7]Te, Tllp-UJl. 




Perfect, I may have been striking. 


s; 


T£TV(j)-0), TETVty-wr, TETV(p-V, 


D. 


TETVtp-TJTOV, TETV^-VTOVj 


p. 


T£TV(f>-U[l£V, TETV<p-7]TE, TETVfy-UGl. 




Second Aorist, I may have struck. 


s. 


rvir-o, rvix-nq, tvk-tj, 


D. 


TVTT-7JTOV, TVIT-nrOV, 


P. 


TVTC-UflEV, TVTT-VTE, TVTT-Uffl. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present, tv7ct-eiv, to strike. 
First Future, tv^-eiv, to be going to strike. 
First Aorist, rvip-at,, to have struck. 
Perfect, T£TV<j>-£vai, to have been striking. 
Second Aorist, tvtt-eiv, to have struck. 
Second Future, tvk-eZv, to be going to strike. 



95 



PARTICIPLES. 

N. TVTTT-av, Hmr-ovoa, TVTCT-OV, 

G. rvm-ovrog, TVTTT-ovcqg, Tvnr-ovrog, &c. 



First Future, going to strike. 



N. TVIp-UV, 
G. TVTp-OVTOC, 



rvf-ovcra, 

Tvip-OVGTJC, 



TVtp-OV, 
TVTp-OVTOg. 



First Aorist, having struck. 

N. rvip-ag, rvip-aaa, rvip-av, 

G. Tvip-avroc, rvip-dang, rvijj-avTog. 

Perfect, who has been striking. 
N. Terv(j>-6g, TETvfy-via, TErv<f>-6g f 

G. T£TV<p-OTOg, TETVty-viag, TETVCp-OTOg. 



Second Aorist, / 



struck. 



N. TVTT-UV, 
G. TV7C-0VT0C, 



rvTz-ovaa, 
ruir-ovang, 



TVTT-OV, 
TVK-OVTOg. 



Second Future, going to strike. 



N. TV7T-CJV, 

G. tvtt-ovvtos, 



Tvir-ovaa, 

TVK-OVOTjg, 



TV7T-OVV, 
TVTT-OVVTOg. 



PASSIVE VOICE. 
The Moods and Tenses. 





Indie. 


Imper. 


Optat. 


Subj. 


Into. 


Fart 


Present, 
Imperfect, 


TV7TTO/J.ai, ) 

krvnTOfinv , S 


TVTTT-OV, 


-oi.fJ.TjV, 


-ufjat, 


-Ecdai, 


-6/j.evog, 


Perfect, 
Pluperfect, 


TETVflfiat, > 

eTETV/j./j.nv, ) 


TETV-tpO, 


-fJ.fJ.EVOg, 
ELTjV, 


-fjfiEVog, 


-<j>6aL, 


-fjucvog, 


1st Aorist, 


eTvtydrjv, 


TV(p~d7)Tl, 


-Belvv, 


-0<3, 


-6fjvai, 


-6eig, 


1st Future, 


TVtyQrjO-OfjaL, 




-oifjnv, 




-Ecdai, 


-ofisvog, 


2d Aorist, 


ETVTTTjV, 


TVTT-ndl, 


-eiTjv, 


-«, 


■vvai, 


-etc, 


2d Future, 


Tvirnc-Ofiai, 




•OlflTJV, 




-ecdai, 


-outvog t 


3d Future, 


TE-rinp-OfiaL, 




-OlfMTjV, 




-eodai, 


-ofiEvog. 



96 VERB. 

Numbers and Persons. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present, I am struck. 

S. TVKT-Ofiai, TVTTT-ei, 1 TVTTT-eTat, 

D. TvrrT-ouedov, TvnT-eadov, rviTT-eodov, 

P. rvKT-ofieda, Tv-rrr-eode, rbiKT-ovrai. 

Imperfect, I was in the act of being struck. 

S. ETVTTT-OflTJV, ETVTZT-OV, ETVTTT-STO, 

D. krvKT-ofiedov, krvrtT-ecdov, ETVTVT-eadTjv^ 

P. kTVTXT-ofieda, eTVTZT-ecde, etvttt-ovto. 

Perfect, I have been struck. 

S. TETVfl-fiat, T£TV1p-ai, T£TV7ZT-at, 

D. T£TVfJ,-fJ.£0OV, T£TV<j>-0OV, T£TV<j>-6oV, 

P. T£TV/J.-/J.£da, TETV(j>-d£, T£TVjl-[l£VOt, ELOl. 

Pluperfect, I had been struck. 

S. ETETVfl-flTJV, ETETVtp-O, ETETVKT-O, 

D. ETSTV/I-flEdoV, £T£TV(j)-d0V, £T£TV<p-dr}V r 

P. ETETVfl-flEda, ETETVQ-dE, TETV[i-[l£VOt TjOaV. 

First Aorist, I was struck. 

S. ETV$-dr}V, £TV<f>-67}C, ETV^&n, 

D. £TV(f>-6r]Tov, ETV^-OrjTrjv, 

P. £TV<p'07}[iSV, £TV(j)-67]T£ } ETV(p-6ncaV. 

First Future, I shall be struck. 

S. rvij)-6^<yofiai, TV^-dqaet,, TVty-drjOETai, 

D. rv(p-d7]o6{i£&ov, Tvty-dricEodov, tv<j>-6t}geg8ov, 

P. rvQ-drjoofiEda, Tvfy-driGEodE, rvty-dfjaovTai. 

Second Aorist, I was struck. 

S. ETV7T-1JV, ETV7T-7JC, ETVTT-7J, 

D. ETVIT-VTOV, ETV7r-7}T7JV, 

P. ETV7T-7}fl£V, ETV7T-7JTE, ETV7T-7]CraV . 

Second Future, J shall be struck. 
S. TviT-7Jaofiac, tvk-tjgel, rvK-riaerai, 

D. TVK-TJOOflEdoV, TVK-TjCEodoV, TVTT-Tja£a6oV t 

P. TVTZ-Tiao^eda, rvK-^CEade, rvK-rjaovrai. 

1. We have given in this, and the other second persons, the Attic ter- 
mination in si, as more correct than the common termination in y. 



97 



Third Future, I shall continue to le struck. 

S. Tervip-o/iai, rerinp-ei, TErinp-eTai, 

D. Tervip-o/uedov, Tervip-eodov, rerv^-Ecdov, 

P. Termp-Sfieda, rerinp-eade, rsTxnp-ovTai. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present, le struck. 



s. 

D. 
P. 


TVTTT-OV, TVTCT-ECdo, 

rvirr-ecdov, rvnT-icdav, 

TVIZT-EgOe, TVKT-EOdidOaV. 




Perfect, have been struck. 


S. 
D. 
P. 


TETVTp-O, TETV<p-6a, 
TETV(j>-dov, TETV<f>-6uV, 

TETv<p-de, TETV<p-dcoeav. 




First Aorist, he struck. 


S. 
D. 
P. 


TV<p-0T}Tl, TV<p-dl]TU, 
TV<p-dnTOV, Tvip-dfjTUV, 
TV<p-dT}TE, TV(p-dJ]TG)CaV. 




Second Aorist, he struck. 


S. 
D. 
P. 


TV1T-7)dl, TVK-TjTU), 
TVTT-TjTOV, TVTZ-TjTUV, 
TV1T-7JTE, TVK-7}TUGaV. 



OPTATIVE MOOD. 
Present, may I le in the act of Icing struck. 

S. TVKT-olu7JV, TVTTT-OIO, TV1TT-OITO, 

D. TVTTT-OIUE0OV, TVTTT-OtcdoV, TVTCT-OLcdriV, 

P. TVTTT-OlftEda, TVTZT-Oiode, TV7TT-OIVTO. 

Perfect, may I have been struck. 

S. TETV/X-flEVOC E17JV, E11JC, SCTJ, 

D. TETUfl-flEVU, tivTOV, drjTTIV, 

P. TETVfl-flEVOl EL7]fl£V, E11JTE, UnaaV. 

First Aorist, may I have been struck. 
S. tv<P-6eIt]v, tv(j>-8ei7}c, tv^-6ectj, 

J). TV<f>-d£l11TOV, TV(f>-dsi7}TnV, 

P. TV^-BeirjiiEv, rvf-dsinTE, ro<p-6Einaav. 



98 VERB. 



First Future, may I be struck hereafter. 

S. TV(j)-67]GOlflT]V, TVty-drjGOLO, TV<p-6r)G0LT0, 

D. TV(p-d7]G0i/J,ed0V, TV(j)-drjGOLGdoV, TV(p-dnGOLGdnV, 

P. Tvip-drjooiiieda, Tvcp-dfjooiade, rvty-dfjooivTO. 

Second Aorist, may I have been struck. 
S. TVTT-eiTjv, TVTr-eirjc, TVir-eir], 

D. TVK-ElTjTOV, TVTT-eirJT7JV, 

73 TVTT-ELTJflEV, TVTC-ElTjTS, TV7T-el?](jaV. 

Second Future, may I be struck hereafter. 

TVTT-7jGOl/J.7]V, TVTT-TjGOLO, TVTT-^GOITO, 

). TVTC-7]G0l[ied0V, TVTC-fjGOlGdoV, TVTC-TjGOiGdrjVy 

"*. TVK-TJJoi/Xeda, TVK-7}G0LgQe, TVK-fjGOlVTO. 

Third Future, may I continue to be struck hereafter. 

S. TETVlp-olflVV, TETVlp-OlO, TETVtp-OiTO, 

D. TETvip-oifj-edov, TETvip-oiGdov, TETvip-oiodrjVi 

P. T£Tvip-oi[ieda, Tervip-oiGde, tetv^-oivto. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present, / may be struck. 

S. TVTT-TUfiat, TVTT-Tri, TVTCT-VTai, 

D. TV7C-TC)UEd0V f TV7T-TT}g6oV, TVTTT-rjGdoV, 

P. TVTZ-TCJfiEda, TV7Z-T7]g6e, tvttt-uvtcu. 

Perfect, I may have been struck. 
S. TETV/i-fj.Evog £>, yg, 77, 

D. TETV/J.-fJ.£VO), 7JTOV, 7/TOV, 

P. TETV/J.-{X£VOC £>[X£V, 7JTE, UGL. 

First Aorist, 1 may have been struck. 

S. TV<p-6u, TV(j)-dfjc, TV(p-67} t 

D. TVtp-dfJTOV, TVCp-fljJTOV, 

P. TV^-dujXEV^ Tvty-dqre, ivfy-d&oi. 

Second Aorist, I may have been struck. 

S. TVTT-U, TVTZ-yC, Tt»7T-f, 

D. TVTT-TJTOV, TV7T-7JTOV, 

P. TVK-UflEVy TVTt-JJTe, TVTT-CiOL. 



09 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present, rvnT-eadac, to be struck. 

Perfect, TervQ-dai, to have been struck. 

First Aorist, rv§-Qrivai s to have been struck. 

First Future, Tvcp-drjCEcdat., to be going to be struck. 

Second Aorist, Tvir-fjvai, to have been struck. 

Second Future, rv7T-^crea8at, to be going to be struck. 

Third Future, rervip-eadai, to be going to be continually struck. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Present, being struck. 

N. TVTTT-OfiEVOC, TVTTT-OfJLEVr], TVTCT-OflEVOV, 

G. TVTTT-O/IEVOV, TV7TT-Ofl£VT]g, TVTTT-OjilEVOV. 

Perfect, having been struck. 

N. TETVfl-flEVOC, T£TVfJ.-(XSVn, TETVfl-flEVOV, 

G. Tervfi-/j,£vov, Tervfi-fievng, rervfi-fievov. 

First Aorist, having been struck. 

N. rv(j)-6eic, rvQ-deiGa, Tv<p-6ev, 

G. tv<P-6evtoc, Tv^-deiarjc, Tvip-devroc.. 

First Future, going to be struck. 

N. rvty-dnaojievoe, TV<j>-6n(jo[j.£V7], rvQ-dnuouevov, 

G. rvip-dnaofj-ivov, Tv<j)-67]ao{j.iv7]c, Tv<p-6rjao[ievov. 

Second Aorist, having been struck. 

N. TVTT-EIC, TVTT-ElGa, TVTC-EV, 

G. tvit-evtoc, Tvir-sionc, rvn-EVToe. 

Second Future, going to be struck. 
N. TVK-naoyLEvoc, Tvir-rjoojiEvn, tv7t-7}(to/j.evov, 

G. TVTT-naOflEVOV, TVir-7]G0{lEV7]e, TVTT-naOflEVOV. 

Third Future, going to be continually struck. 

N. TETWp-OflEVOC, TSTVIp-OflEVn, TETVTp-SflEVOV, 

G. TETVTp'0/J.EVOV, T£Tvip-OfJ.SV7]g, TETVIp'OHEVQV. 



100 





MIDDLE VOICE 








The Moods and Tenses. 




Indie. 


Imper. 


Optat 


Subj. 


Infin. 


Part. 


Present, 
Imperfect, 


TV7VT-Ofiai, ) 
kTVTTT-6/LL7]V, S 


TV7TT-0V, 


-Ol/lJ]V, 


-ujuat, 


-tadacj 


-6/ievoc, 


Perfect, 


TETVIT-a, > 

krerviT-eiv, > 












Pluperfect. 


TervTr-e, 


-Olfil, 


-CJ, 


-evat, 


-cog, 


1st Future, 


rvip-0/j.at, 




-OtUTJV, 




-eodai, 


-ofzevog, 


1st Aorist, 


krvip-dfiriv, 


Tvip-ai, 


-at/j.7}v, 


-ufxac, 


-aodai, 


-dfievog. 


2d Aorist, 


kTVTT-6/J.TJV, 


TVTT-OV, 


-oturjv. 


-ufiac. 


-Ecdai, 


-6/j.evog, 


2d Future, 


TV7T-OVfJ.ai, 


\-OLfl7]V, 




-eiadai, -ovfievog. 



Numbers and Persons. 
The only tenses of the middle voice that differ from 
those of the active and passive of verbs in G) are the first 
aorists of the indicative, imperative, and optative, and the 
gecond future of the indicative. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
First Aorist, I struck myself. 

S. ervip-dfj-rjv, ervip-o, krvip-aro, 

D. ervip-dfiedov, krvip-aadov, krvip-dadrjVy 

P. krvip-dfieda, £Tvip-aode, ervip-avTO. 

Second Future, I shall or will strike myself. 

S. rviT-ov{j,ai, rv7r-£t, Tvir-eirai, 

D. TVK-ovjiedov, Tvir-eladov, rv7r-eta6ov, 

P. rvir-ovfieda, TVK-elode, tvk-ovvto.1. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
First Aorist, strike thyself. 

S. rvip-ai, rvip-dcdo), 

D. rvxp-aadov, rv-ifj-daduv, 

P. Tinp-acQe, Tvip-dcducav. 



OPTATIVE MOOD. 
First Aorist, may I have struck myself. 

S. Tvip-atfir/v, rv'ip-aio, rthp-airo, 

D. Tv-ip-aiuedov, Tvip-aiadov, rmp~ata6ijv t 

P. Tvip-aifieda, rvip-acode, rvip-aiVTO. 



101 



PARTICIPLES. 

First Aorist, having struck myself. 

N. rwj)-afj.Evog, Tvip-a.fi.ev7}, rvty-afiivov , 

G. Tvijj-a.fj.evov, rvip-afthng, Tvip-afievov. 

First Future, being about to strike myself. 
N. Tvty-ofievog, Tvip-o/zevn, rvty-ofievov, 

G. TVTp-OflEVOV, TVrp-0fXeV7}Cy TVIp-OfXEVOV. 

Second Future, being about to strike myself 

N. TVK-OVflZVOQ, TVK-OVfiivT], TVK-OVfieVOV , 

G. TVK-ovfievov, TVK-ovfievrjg, rvTi-ovfievov. 

The Greek verb, of the class in «, will now be consid- 
ered under the following heads : 

1. Augment. 

2. Formation of the Tenses. 

3. Force of the Tenses. 

4. Middle Voice. 

5. Force of the Moods. 

1. AUGMENT. 

1. The Augments are two in number, the Syllabic and 
Temporal. 

2. The syllabic augment belongs to verbs that begin 
with a consonant, and is so called because it adds a sylla- 
ble to the verb. 

3. The temporal augment belongs to verbs that begin 
with a vowel, and is so called because it increases the time 
or quantity of the initial vowel. 

4. Three of the tenses have an augment, which is con- 
tinued through all the moods, viz., the Perfect, Pluperfect, 
and Third Future, or Paulo-post-futurum. 

5. Three receive an augment in the indicative only, viz., 
the Imperfect and the two Aorists. 

6. Three receive no augment, viz., the Present and the 
First and Second Futures* 

12 



102 RULES FOR THE SYLLABIC AUGMENT. 

7. The true use of the augment is to mark an action 
which is either completely or partially past. Hence it will 
appear why the present and the first and second futures 
have no augment ; why the imperfect and two aorists have 
an augment only in the indicative ; and why the perfect, 
pluperfect, and third future, all three of which refer to a con- 
tinued action, have an augment continued throughout all the 
moods of the verb. 

8. The augment originally was the same in the case of 
all verbs, namely, an e was prefixed, whether the verb be- 
gan with a vowel or a consonant. Traces of this old aug- 
ment are found in the early Ionic poets, and occasionally 
in Ionic prose ; as, edcpOr) for 7\<bQr\ ; edvdave for r\vdave. 

9. Afterward the usage was thus determined, that e 
was only prefixed to verbs beginning with a consonant; 
whereas, in others, it coalesced with the initial vowel, and 
became a long vowel or diphthong. Thus, tvtttg) has in 
the imperfect e-rvnTov, but dyo) has r\yov (from e-ayov), 
and oIkI^o has cdkl^ov (from e-oucl&v). 

10. The Attics retained this old augment in the follow- 
ing cases: 1. In such words as saga, edyrjv, eaywc, from 
ayco, " to break ;" to distinguish them from fji;a, : r\X a -> ^ c -i 
from dycj, " J carry?' 1 2. In kaXuna, kdX(o; eoifca, eoXna, 
sopya, in which the characteristic of the perfect middle (ol 
and o) could not be effaced. 3. In verbs which begin with 
a vowel not capable of being lengthened ; as, euOovv, from 
(bdeo) ; eoxjfiai, from the same ; ecdvoviirjv, from (bveofiaL ; 
tovpovv, from ovpecj. 

RULES FOR THE SYLLABIC AUGMENT. 
1. The augment of the imperfect and the two aorists, in 
verbs beginning with a consonant, is formed by merely 
prefixing e ; as, ervrrrov, ervipa, ervnov. If, however, the 
verb begin with p, the p is doubled after the augment ; as, 
kppurrov, from plirro) ; eppeov, from pe<o. 



RULES FOR THE SYLLABIC AUGMENT. 103 

2. The augment of the perfect is formed by repeating the 
initial consonant of the verb, and annexing to it an e ; as, 
T£TV(pa, rervna ; XeXoma, &c. 

3. This repetition of the initial consonant is called by 
the grammarians Reduplication (3nrXa(Jiaojj,6<;), and is sub- 
ject to the following rules : 

(A.) If the verb begins with an aspirated consonant, 
then in the reduplication the corresponding smooth 
or lenis is put ; as, (piXeo, perfect 7T£(j)tX7]Ka ; %pv- 
goo), perfect fcexpvoojita. 

(B.) If the verb begins with p, the perfect does not 
take the reduplication, but the p is doubled and e 
prefixed ; as, pCrrTO), perfect eppccpa. 

(C.) If the verb begin with a double consonant, £ |, 
if), or with two consonants, the latter of which is 
not a liquid, the perfect does not receive the redu- 
plication, but only the augment e ; as, tyrea), per- 
fect e%r]T7]ita ; %vpeo), perfect egvprjica ; ipdXXa), 
perfect eipaXna ; aireipo), perfect eunapfca ; ot£X- 
>U), perfect earaX/ca. 

To this rule, however, there are the following 
exceptions: 1. The syncopated forms which be- 
gin with 7tt ; as, Trerrraiiai (for TreireraiiaL) ; but 
not so the other verbs in 7rr ; as, TrrepoG), e-rrrepcj- 
kol ; TTTfjGGG), eirrqxa. 2 . The verb fcrdoficu, of 
which the perfect fcefcrrjfiai is more used by the 
Attics, and e/crrifiai by the Ionians and older At- 
tics. 

(©.) If the verb begins with a mute and liquid, the 
reduplication appears in some cases, but in others 
is omitted. Mvdo) always makes \ii\iV7]\Lai ; and 
verbs whose second initial consonant is p receive 
the reduplication regularly ; as, dpefiG), perfect ds- 
dpdfiTjfca ; &pavG), perfect redpavica ; rpscpcj, per- 
fect T£Tpo(pa. On the other hand, it is generally 



104 RULES FOR THE TEMPORAL AUGMENT. 

wanting in verbs whose second initial consonant 
is X ; as, yXvnrG), perfect eyXvcpa. 

4. The augment of the pluperfect is formed by prefixing 
e to the reduplication of the perfect ; as, rervcpa, pluperfect 
erervcpetv. 

5. The third future passive, being formed from the per- 
fect of the same voice, has, like that tense, the reduplica- 
tion ; as, rerviponaL. 

RULES FOR THE TEMPORAL AUGMENT. 
1. By the contraction of the augment e with the initial 
vowel of the verb, the following results are obtained : 



becomes 


n\ 


as, afcovcj, 


imp. 


TJfCOVOV. 


a 


n\ 


" eyetpG), 


" 


7\yEipOV. 


it 


l; 


" IfCaVG), 


tt 


l/cavov. 


" 


w; 


" dvofj,d£G), 


a 


tdvoiia^ov. 


" 


v; 


" v6pi%G), 


it 


vbpi^ov. 


it 


VI 


" alpo), 


tt 


§pov. 


a 


7\V\ 


" avi-dvoj, 


tt 


ijvi-avov. 


tt 


7)v; 


" evxo[MU,, 


" 


T)VX0{17]V. 


a 


v; 


" oIkl^oj, 


it 


&kl£ov. 



2. In some verbs, however, e becomes u ; as, e%a), el- 
Xpv ; edo), eltiv ; eAw, elXov, &c. 

3. When a verb or verbal form begins with eo, the sec- 
ond vowel takes the augment ; as, eoprd^G), ecjpra^ov. So, 
also, in the pluperfects formed from the three perfects eoi- 
Ka, eoXttcl, and eopya, namely, e&neiv, ecoXneiv, and eti3/> 
yew. 

4. Of vowels which are already long in themselves, a 
becomes rj, as already mentioned ; but the others, 7), co, I, 
v, are wholly incapable of being augmented ; as, i\TTdo\iai % 
imperfect rjrrcDfiTjv^ perfect fjTT7]<mi, pluperfect rfTr\\i7\v. 



REMARKS ON THE TWO AUGMENTS. 105 

REMARKS ON THE TWO AUGMENTS. 
1. Syllabic. 

1. The Attics prefix the temporal instead of the syllabic 
augment to fiovXofiai, dvvapcu, and fieXXa) ; as, 7j6ovX6jj,7)Vj 
i}dvvaiL7)v, r\\ieXkov. Here a form kboyXofxai, edvvafjicu, 
ejieXho), is assumed, like 6sXo) and eOeXo). 

2. The initial augment in the pluperfect is sometimes 
omitted by the Attics ; as, neirovdeiv for enenovOeiv ; ye- 
yev7)fj,rjv for eysyevrjfirjv. 

3. In verbs beginning with A and fi, the Ionians, Attics, 
and others are accustomed to put el for Xe or fie ; as, Xa\i- 
6dvo, perfect e'l?i7]<pa, for XeX7\$a\ Xay^dvo), perfect el- 

4. In Homer and Hesiod the second aorists often receive 
a reduplication ; as, tcsKafiov for etcapov, from fcdfivo) ; ire- 
ttiBov for emdov, from rreido), &c. 

5. The augment of the historical tenses is very often 
omitted in poetry by writers not Attic ; as, (3dXs for etaXe ; 
(3rj for e6rj ; yevovro for eyevovro, &c. 

2. Temporal. 

1. Many verbs beginning with a diphthong neglect the 
augment. Those in ov never take it ; as, ovrd^G), ovra- 
%ov. Those in el also have no augment ; as, eljcg), eltcov, 
elt-a, with the single exception of elicd^o), which is now 
and then augmented by the Attics ; as, £lfcd£<*), ELfcaoa, 
EitcacFfiaL, Attic xjtcacra, xinaofiaL. Verbs in ev have the aug- 
ment 7jv with the Attics, though the usage is variable. 
Thus we have 7]vx6fi7]v and Evxofirjv ; evpiBr\v, and very 
rarely r\vpiBr\v. 

2. The verbs (bdeo), (bveofiaL, and ovpeo), not being sus- 
ceptible of the temporal augment, take e before their initial 
vowel or diphthong. In other words, they retain the early 
augment ; as, gjOeg), eo)6ovv ; G)V£0[iaL, EGivovfj,7]v ; ovpeo, 
eovpovv. 

3. As the syllabic augment in (3ovXojiaL, SvvafiaL, and 
fisXXo), is increased by the temporal, in the same manner 
the temporal augment in the verb opdo is increased by the 
syllabic ; as, opdo), imperfect ecjpcjv. 



106 AUGMENT OF COMPOUND VERBS. 

ATTIC REDUPLICATION. 

1. Verbs beginning with a vowel, not being able to take 
a reduplication like that in verbs with the syllabic aug- 
ment, have in the perfect, occasionally, what is I called the 
Attic Reduplication. 

2. The Attic reduplication is when the first two letters 
of the root are repeated before the temporal augment, the 
initial vowel remaining unchanged. Thus : 



ayecpG), TjyepKa, 


Att. Red. 


ayrjyepica 


EflEG), TJflSKd, 


a 


ejj,rjfjL£Ka. 


oXXvjm, (jjXsica, 


" 


oX&Xena. 


(eXevda)) 7JXvda, 


« 


eXrjXvda. 


6£(x), (bda, 


it 


bdcjda. 



3. The pluperfect sometimes prefixes to this reduplica- 
tion a new temporal augment ; most commonly in drcrjicoaj 

TjKTjtCOELV. 

4. A similar reduplication is formed in some verbs in the 
second aorist, only that here the temporal augment comes 
first ; as, rjpapov, tipopov, ijyayov. 

AUGMENT OF COMPOUND VERBS. 

1. When the verb is compounded with a preposition, the 
augment comes between the preposition and the verb ; as 
7rpoG(f)£po), irpoGscpepov. 

2. Verbs compounded with other words have the aug- 
ment usually at the beginning ; as, fieXonoieG), EfieXonoiovv ; 
7rX7][jifieX£G), nenXrjfiijieXrjfca. 

3. Verbs compounded with ev and 6vg take the temporal 
augment in the middle when these verbs commence with 
a vowel that admits of change ; as, evepyereo), evr\pyi~ 
row ; dvaapeareo, dvarjpearovv. 

4. But when these particles are joined to verbs com- 
mencing with an immutable vowel or a consonant, they 



REMARKS ON THE AUGMENT OF COMPOUND VERBS. 107 

take the augment at the beginning ; as, Svocotteg), eSvaco- 
ttovv ; dvorvx&u, k$voTV%i)aa ; evSokljiecj, 7\v6oK,i\iovv . 
In compounds with ev, however, the augment in such ca- 
ses is commonly omitted ; as, Evc^x^o^ac, Evcjxov^rjv, &c. 

REMARKS ON THE AUGMENT OF COMPOUND VERBS. 

1. The prepositions, excepting nepi, lose their final 
vowel before the syllabic augment ; as, diredcdics, aficbebaX- 
Xev ; but TrspiEdrjtca, not Trepedrjrca. In the case of Trpo, 
however, the o is usually contracted with £ ; as, irpovd?], 
npovdrjica, &c. 

2. The prepositions avv and eV, whose final consonant 
is changed by the laws of euphony into y, X, \l, p, a, re- 
sume v before the syllabic augment ; as, Eyyiyvo\iai, eve- 
yiyvo\ir\v ; ovXXsycD, cvveXeyov ; efifievG), evefievov, &c. 

3. Strictly speaking, all those verbs have the augment 
at the beginning which are not so much themselves com- 
pounded with another word as derived from a compound 
one. Thus, deivonaOsG), edsLvonddovv, from deLvonadrjg ; 
olicodofj,£(*), (b/codofiovv, from olnodofiog, &c. 

4. Hence some verbs, apparently compounded with prep- 
ositions, take the augment at the beginning ; as, evavrtov- 
p,ai, rjvavTLov[Ar]v, from evavrtog. So, also, dvn,6oXCJ, r\v- 
ri66Xovv. 

5. Exceptions, however, to the rules just mentioned, are 
of no unfrequent occurrence, especially among the Attics, 
with whom we find the following forms : E^EKXrjalaoav, 
evercojftia^ov, TrpoEcprjrevaa, EiuTETrjdsvita, &c, although in 
all these verbs no simple form exists, but they are derived 
at once from eKuXrjaCa, Eyrtd)[j,iov, Trpo&qrrjg, ETnrrjdrjg. 

6. Some compound verbs take a double augment, name- 
ly, one before and one after the preposition ; as, dvopOoo, 
rjvcjpdovv, E7Tr\VG)pd(jirai ; evoxXeo), rjv&xXovv ; dve^w, r\v- 
Eixo\ir\v ; napoivEG), EirapuvrjGEV, &c. Still more irregular 
are the following : dsdix/r^rca, e^e6e6l^t7]to, from dtairdo) ; 
d£duoK7]fca, ediG)K7)(ja, from Slolkecj ; and, in later writers, 
ijvrjXoaa, from dvaXiOKG), and d£dc7]tc6v7iica } from diaicoveG). 



108 FORMATION OF THE ACTIVE TENSES. 

2. FORMATION OF THE ACTIVE TENSES. 

The Imperfect 

is formed from trie present by changing the termination w 
into ov, and prefixing the augment ; as, rvnr(»), ervrcrov ; 
keyo), sXeyov ; ayo), rjyov. 

The First Future 

is formed from the present by changing the last syllable in 
the 

First conjugation into tpo) ; as, tvtttoj, rvipo) ; 
Second conjugation " %G) ; " Xeyco, Xe$-(o ; 
Third conjugation " oco ; " tio, t'log) ; 

and in the fourth conjugation by circumflexing the last 
syllable, and shortening the penult ; as, ipakXo), ipaXti. 

Verbs in aw and so generally change a and e into rj, and 
verbs in 6g) change o into w ; as, rt^do), tl^ocj ; (pL^scj, 
<j)(,XrjOG) ; SrjXoG), 6t]Xg)G0). 

Four verbs, commencing with a smooth syllable, change 
that smooth into an aspirate in the future ; as, 

exo), ego. Tp£%w, i?pe|6). 

rpecpG), d-peipo). rv(j)0), dvipG). 1 

The First Aorist 

is formed from the first future by prefixing the augment and 
changing a> into a ; as, rv\pG), ervipa. 

1. These apparent anomalies admit of a very easy explanation. The 
old form of tyo* was e^cj, which was changed to exu, because two suc- 
cessive syllables cannot well have each an aspiration. But in the future 
the aspirate reappears, in consequence of the x being removed, in order 
to make way for the termination of the future, fw. In like manner, the 
old presents of Tpe<pu. rpixo), and tv^u were respectively -&pe<j)0), -&p£X u > 
and -&v(j>o), changed to rpecpu, &c, in order that two successive syllables 
might not each begin with an aspirate -, while in the future the first as- 
pirate reappears, the latter having been changed. 



£* P p 


eijjrjXa. 
E(pr\va. 
earetXa. 


KplVG), 


eitpZva. 
rjfivva. 



FORMATION OF THE ACTIVE TENSES. 109 

In verbs of the fourth conjugation, namely, those ending 
in Xg), fj,G), vg), po), the short vowel of the penult is again 
made long by changing 

a into 7\\ as, ipaXXcj, 

a " 7] ; " (JMZivo), 

e " el; " gteXXgj, 

X " *■-> " tcptvG), 

v " -D ; " dfjLVVGd, 

But verbs in -pcuvoy and -taivG) have only a long a in the 
penult of the first aorist, without changing it into r\ ; as, 
nEpaivo), TTEpavG), Enspdva ; maivG), mdvoj, snidva. 

Later writers form also many others with long a, where, 
according to the general rule, the r\ should be employed ; 
as, Ear\\idva, from Gr\\iaivG) ; srcoiXdva, from KotXatvG). 

Some verbs, which have a in the future, lose it in the 
first aorist ; as, %eg), xevog), E%£va ; gevg), gevggj, egevo, ; 

(Ca£(x), KCLVGG), EfCTja. 

The Perfect 
is formed from the first future by prefixing the continued 
augment, and changing, in the 

First conjugation, ipo) into (f>a ; as, rvif)(o, r£rv<pa. 

Second conjugation, %g) " %a ; " Xe^gj, XeXox^. 

Third conjugation, ggj " Ka ; " tlgg), tetiko,. 

Fourth conjugation, w " Ka ; " ipaXti, EipaXtta. 

Dissyllables in -Xg) and -po) change the e of the first fu- 
ture into a ; as, gteXXgj, gteXgj, EGraXfca ; GTTELpo), GnspGJ, 
EGixapna. But polysyllables, on the contrary, retain the e ; 
as, ayysXXG), dyye/la), r\yyEXna. 

Verbs in -Lvgj, -vvo), and -elvgj reject v before k, and retain 
the short vowel of the future ; as, fcpivo), KplvCj, KEKptKa ; 
ttXvvgj, ttXvvgj, TCEnXvica ; but those in elvgj change the e of 
the future into a ; as, telvg), tevgj, Tirana. 
K 



110 



FORMATION OF THE ACTIVE TENSES. 



Verbs in -aivo) change v before k into y ; as, (patvo), (pa- 
v&, 7T£<payfta ; fuatvo), fiLavti, \i&\iiaytia. 

In some verbs the e is changed into o ; as, rpe0w, #pe- 
ipG), rerpcxpa ; KXenro), KXeipG), nenXcxpa , Xeyco, Xei-G), Ae- 
Ao%a, &c, and even before two consonants ; as, tte[17tg), 

TTepipG), 7T£7T0[Mpa. 

The Pluperfect 
is formed from the perfect by prefixing e to the continued 
augment, if there be a reduplication, and changing the ter- 
mination a into 8LV ; as, rirvcpa, erervcpeiv. 

The Second Aorist 
is formed from the present by prefixing the augment, short- 
ening the penult, and changing 0) into ov ; as, TV7TTG), erv- 
nov ; Xelttg), eXittov ; Kafivo), endfiov. 

The penult of the present is shortened for this purpose 
by the following changes : 



Vowels. 

at into a ; 



-I 



a; 



nratpG), 
Xrjdo), 

TpETTG), 

(pevyo), 
Xetno), 



ercrapov. 

eXddov. 

erpdnov. 

etpvyov. 

eXlrcov. 



e or a, in verbs ending in Aw, fio, vq, pco. 



Consonants. 
XX into 



oo, 



X; 

rr ; 

P; 

0; 

r; 
>*; 
!y; 

y; 



fidXXo), edaXov. 

TVTTTCJ, &TVTTOV. 

tcpvTTTG), etcpvdov. 

pdnrG), $ppd<f)OV. 

rdoGG), erdyov. 

cppd^o), ecbpddov. 

Kpd^G), eicpdyov. 

(TfjLv^cj, eofivyov. 



REMARKS ON THE ACTIVE TENSES. Ill 

Verbs in -£g) and -gggj of the second conjugation form 
the second aorist in yov ; as, repaid), eupdyov ; rrpaooo), 
ZTrpayov ; but those of the third conjugation form it in dov ; 
as, (f)pd%(x), eeppadov. 

The verb ttXtjggg) makes enX^yov in the second aorist ; 
but the a appears in the compounds that signify " to fright- 
en ;" as, Kare-nXayov, e^enXayov. 

The Second Future 
is formed from the second aorist by dropping the aug- 
ment, and changing ov into circumflexed w ; as, etvttov, 

TV7TU>. 

The Attic Future 
is formed by throwing out a in -daa), -£<tg>, and -Sou, of 
the future, and then contracting the vowels thus brought 
into contact ; as, e^eXCd for e^eXaGG) ; eXw for IXaGG) ; dia- 
gkeSco for diaonedaoG) ; KaXd) for tcaXeoG) ; b\iov\iai for 
6{i6aojj,ai ; fiaxelodat, for [lax^sodai, &c. 

REMARKS ON THE FORMATION OF THE ACTIVE 
TENSES. 

1. Future. 

1 . The old future of all verbs ended originally in egg), 
and we still find oXegg) from oXg), and dpeao) from ap<*). 

2. This primitive form in -egg) was changed by the iEo- 
lians into gg) by dropping the £ ; as, apo), apacj ; opo), op- 
gg); Kvpo), Kvpoo). The Ionians, on the other hand, changed 
the old form into eg) by rejecting a ; as, &Xeg), dpeoj, fevpecj, 
&c, while the Attics contracted this form into C) ; as, [ievg), 
p,£v£j ; gteXXg), gteXgj, Sic. 

3. Thus, from the original form of the future in ego, 
which remained only in some verbs, two new forms arose, 
one in gg), and the other in eg), contracted w. 

4. The future in w was chiefly used in verbs whose 
characteristic was X, jjl, v, p, that is, which ended in Xg), 
flu, vg), poj ; the future in ggj was, with a few exceptions, 
employed in the rest. 



112 REMARKS ON THE ACTIVE TENSES. 

5. This future in gcj is generally denominated the first 
future, and the future in c5 is also a first future in verbs 
which end in /Uj, fio, vo, and po), but in other verbs it is 
called the second future. 

6. In strictness, therefore, the second future is only a 
dialect variation from the first, and does not exist at all in 
verbs ending in Aw, jj,gj, vu, and po). 

7. In changing the termination -egg) into ao), the conso- 
nants immediately preceding it are also changed according 
to the ordinary rules of euphony. Thus : 

(A.) The consonants 6, 6, r, £, are omitted before a, 
and the remaining consonants, n, j3, 0, k, y, %, 
are united with the a that follows into the double 
consonants if) and £ ; as, Kpimro), upvirreoo), apv- 
ipc) ; ayo), ayeou, ai-G) ; ttXekg), ttXekegg), ttXe^g). 

(B.) Double y makes y| ; as, Atyyw, hiyyeoo), XLy- 

(C.) If v precede r?, 0, r, £, it is thrown out ; but, in 
order that the syllable may remain long, an i is in- 
serted after £ ; as, cnevdcj, G7T£lgg). 

(D.) In other cases, however, particularly when 
the verb ends in £<y, ggg), or rro), usage must be 
attended to, since many verbs of this kind are 
formed in a different manner in the future. Thus, 
£ becomes £ in some ; as, rcpa^o), repaid), where 
the original form of the present was in yo) ; as, 
Kpdyo), Kpayeoo, Kpd^o ; in others it becomes 
yl'a) ; as, ttM^o), n^dy^G), where the original form 
of the present was in yyo) ; as, nXdyyo), irXayys- 
oo), TiXdy^G). 

(E.) Verbs in ggg) and ttg) are most of them derived 
from forms in kg) and %w, and hence have the fu- 
ture in %g). Thus, cppiGGG), (ppc^oy ; old form (ppUu, 
(ppiiceGG), <pplgO). And again, rapaGGG), rapdgu) ; old 
form rapdxG), rapa^eGO), rapd^G). Other verbs in 
ggg) and tto) are considered merely as lengthened 
forms of verbs pure, or verbs in o) with a vowel or 
diphthong preceding, and hence they make the fu- 
ture in go) ; as, dpfMO^oj, dp/ioGGj. 

8. Verbs pure, whose final syllable is preceded by a 
diphthong, undergo no change in the future except the as- 



REMARKS ON THE ACTIVE TENSES. 113 

sumption of a ; as, a/covo, clkovog) ; ttclvg), ttclvgg). In 
other verbs pure, where a vowel precedes the termination, 
the short vowel of the present becomes long before the a ; 
as, da,K.pv(o, SatcpvGO ; tig), tigg). Hence verbs in eo), do), 
and 6o) have the long vowel in the penult of the future ; 
as, (piXsoj, (piXrjGG) ; rifidd), tijitjoo) ; xpvaoo), xpvouoo). 
The following exceptions, however, must be noted ; 

(A.) The termination £<o makes egg) in reXto), dp- 
ksg), vet/ceo, and some others ; as, teXegg), dptce- 
oo), veucegg). These futures are very probably 
from old presents in o>. 

(B.) Some verbs in eg) have egg) and tjgg) ; as, na- 
Xeg), KaXr\GG), Attic kciXegg) ; alveo, alvfjGG), Attic 
alveGO). Here two forms of the present appear 
to have been originally in use, one in w, making 
egg) in the future, and another in eo, making tjgg). 

(C.) Verbs in ao, whose final syllable is preceded 
by e or i, or by the consonants X and p, have the 
future in aGG). And this future is long if a vowel 
or the letter p precede ao) in the present, but oth- 
erwise it is short. Thus, edo), eclgg) ; dpdo, dpa- 
gg) ; but yeXdo), ysXaGO). 

(D.) But the following verbs in aw make tjgg) in the 
future, namely, GvXdo) and %pdo). Verbs which 
have o before the final do) have also generally 
rjGG) ; as, j3odo), ftorjGG). 

(E.) The termination 6g) makes ogg) in verbs which 
are not derivative ; as, oiwg), ojiogg) ; dpoo, apo-> 
GO), &c. 

9. The verbs tcato and aXaiG), in Attic redo) and tcXdo), 
make the future in -clvgg) ; as, ftavGO), tcXavGG). 

10. Verbs in Xo), [jlg), vg), pG), shorten the penult when 
forming the future ; as, dfivvG), dfivvti ; npivG), Kplvti. This 
arises from the circumstance of the tone in the future rest- 
ing on the last syllable. 

11. Many barytone verbs are frequently formed by the 
Attics and Ionians, like contracted verbs, by changing o 
into r]G(x) ; as, fidXXc*), (3aXXrjGG) ; (36gkg), (3oGicr)GG) ; tvtttg), 

TVTTTTIGG). 

K2 



114 REMARKS ON THE ACTIVE TENSES. 

2. Perfect. 

1. Verbs in ficj and vo) presuppose a future in rjao) ; as, 
vefiG), veve/jLTjica ; fievcj, \Lt\iEvr\Ka. In these perfects the fu- 
tures vefifjOG), fievijoo) are presupposed, which, however, 
were hardly in use any more than the forms of the present 
vefieo, fieveo, &c. 

2. Generally, r\ and e in the future and perfect are fre- 
quently interchanged. Thus deo) has 6r]O0) in the future, 
and dedeica in the perfect. On the other hand, Kakeo) has 
commonly in the future kclXzog), but in the perfect KetcXrjiia 
by syncope for K£Ka?i7]Ka. 

3. Some verbs take 6) before k instead of r\ ; as. \is\i- 
6Xo)fca for \LE\Lo\r\iia, where (3 is put between \l and A, as 
in fj,e<77]ii6pt.a. So olxwica. from olxofiai, instead of 0L%7]Ka ; 
and nen-ofca, from ttetg) or ttltztcj, instead of nenr^Ka. 

3. Second Aorist. 

1. As a short penult is required in the second aorist, it 
frequently happens that, when two consonants come together 
which lengthen the vowel, they are transposed ; as, depiccj, 
edpanov ; irepdo), enpadov ; where the original forms were 
edapKOV and enapOov. 

2. Verbs pure have no second aorist, and the forms 
which do occur come from barytone verbs. Thus, ecrepov 
comes from arepo), not orepso) ; edovnov from dovno), not 
dovneo). 

3. If the second aorist would only have been distinguished 
from the imperfect by a short penult, or if it would have 
differed in no respect, as to form and quantity, from that 
tense, the verb has no second aorist active. It may have, 
however, a second aorist passive. Thus, ypdcpcj has no 
second aorist active, but it has eypdcprjv in the passive. 



FORMATION OF THE PASSIVE TENSES. 115 

2. FORMATION OF THE PASSIVE TENSES. 

The Present 

is formed from the present active by changing 0) into Oficu ; 

aS, TVTTTb), TVTTTOfiai. 

The Imperfect 
is formed from the imperfect active by changing ov into 
6\ir\v ; as, ervTTTOV, krvnr6\i7\v. 

The Perfect 
is formed from the perfect active by changing, in the 

First conjugation, \ J° P ure ™ to W ac ' *f ' ri J v ^ ™W<»- 

J & I <t>a impure " fiat ; " TsTcpQa, Terepfiai. 

Second conjugation, % a " Jftac ; " /leAo^a, teheyfiai. 

Third conjugation, tea " c/mi ; " Tzefypana, ni(f>pa<7f£at. 

Fourth conjugation, /ca " ^ai ; " EipaTina, eipafyicu. 

In verbs of the third conjugation, however, na is changed 
into \iai when a long vowel or pa precedes the final sylla- 
ble ; as, cneipdo), cneipdoG), eGiretpafca, £cmeLpd[iai ; dpdo, 
dpdod), dsdpafta, dedpafiai ; (piXeo, (piXr\GG), nefiiXrjKa, irscpL- 

?i7][Mll, &LC. 

But there are exceptions to this rule in the case of some 
verbs, which have a diphthong before the final a) of the ac- 
tive, since diphthongs have arisen from the short vowel 
made long; as, dtcovo), r\novG\Lai\ nraid), eirraiafiai; -&pavo), 
redpavojiac, &c. 

Verbs in acvo), which make -yita in the perfect active, 
make, after rejecting y, the termination of the perfect pas- 
sive in Glial ; as, (palvo), Trecpayrca, Tt£$aG\Lai. 

In some verbs the quantity is changed ; as, TrenGifca, ne- 
TTOfiat, from ttlvg) ; and dedojtca, dedofiac, from Scdofic. 

The vowel o in the perfect active, which was derived 
from e of the present, is again changed to e in the perfect 
passive ; as, kXstttoj, icefchocpa, KiitkE\i\iai ; 7T£[nro), TrinojJi- 
<pa, Triirc^ai. 



116 FORMATION OF THE PASSIVE TENSES. 

But if p with another consonant precede the o, it is 
changed in the perfect passive into a ; as, <7rpe0o), earpo- 
<pa, earpajJLfiaL ; rpenco, rerpo^a, Tirpa\i\iai. 

The third person plural of the perfect is formed from the 
third person singular by inserting v before rat ; as, rrecpt- 
Xrjvrai, from 7rs(bt?i7jrai. But if the first person of the per- 
fect passive end in \iai impure, that is, with a consonant 
preceding it, the third person plural is formed by a peri- 
phrasis of the verb dpi and the perfect participle ; as, ts- 
TVfijicu, TeTVfijjievoi elal. 1 

This same periphrasis is employed in the optative and 
subjunctive moods, when the perfect ends in fiat impure ; 
as, Tsrvfifievog etrjv, rervjifiEvog c5. But not when the per- 
fect ends in fiai pure ; as, rerifiyfi^Vj T£Ti\i&\iai % 

The 'Pluperfect 

is formed from the perfect by changing \iai into firjv, and 
prefixing £ to the continued augment, if there be a redupli- 
cation ; as, T£TVfi[iat, krtTv\i\ir\v . 

The third person plural of the pluperfect is formed by a 
periphrasis of ti\il and the perfect participle, whenever the 
perfect from which it is derived ends in \iai impure ; as, 
rervfijievot r\aav. 

The First Aorist 
is formed from the third person singular of the perfect by 
dropping the reduplication, changing rat into Orjv, and the 
preceding smooth into an aspirated mute ; as, r£rvnrat f 

£TV<j)67]V. 

Four verbs take a before the termination 6t]v, although 
it is not found in the third person of the perfect ; as, fiifi- 
VTjrat, £jj,vrjadr)v ; K,ix? r \ ral -> £XPV G ^1 V 5 eppurai, kpp&a6r\v ; 

1. This is done from a principle of euphony, since TervTrvrai would 
be too harsh for the ear. The same remark applies to the pluperfect, 
and to the optative and subjunctive moods. 



FORMATION OF THE PASSIVE TENSES. 117 

TrenXTjrac, ETrXrjodrjv. On the contrary, asooxyrai makes 

EGGjdTjV. 

Some which have 7] in the perfect passive receive an e 
in the first aorist ; as, evprjrai,, evpedrjv ; errqvTjTai, eiryv- 
iBr\v ; d(\>^pr\rai, d^pid^v . From elprjrac the aorist is kp- 
pr\Qr\v and eppedrjv. 

Verbs which change e of the future into o of the perfect 
active, and into a in the perfect passive, take £ again in the 
first aorist ; as, earpanraL, EGTpi§Qr\v ; TerpaTrrac, erpecp- 
Br\v ; TsdpanTai, edpicpdrjv. 

The First Future 
is formed from the first aorist by dropping the augment, 
and changing Qr\v into Qi\ao\Lai ; as, erixpdrjv, rvcpdrjoofiat. 

The Second Aorist 
is formed from the second aorist active by changing ov into 
7}V ; as, ervnov, etvtttjv. 

No second aorist passive occurs in dqv, -&tjv, tt\v ; or 
from verbs in cj pure, except Efcdrjv, sddrjv, eppvrjv, k$vr\v. 

The Second Future 

is formed from the second aorist by dropping the augment, 
and changing r\v into 7\ao\iai ; as, Ervnrjv, Tvnr\ao\iai. 

The Third Future, 

or Paulo-post-futurum, is formed from the second person 
singular of the perfect by changing at into o\iai ; as, tetv- 

IpCU, T£TV1pO[iat. 

3. FORMATION OF THE MIDDLE TENSES. 

The Present and Imperfect 

are the same in form as those of the passive voice, and are 
similarly formed. 



118 FORMATION OF THE MIDDLE TENSES. 

The Perfect 
is formed from the second aorist active by prefixing the 
reduplication, and changing ov into a ; as, etvttov, rervna. 

If the second aorist has a or e in the penult, the perfect 
middle changes this into o ; as, cmeipG), eanapov, eonopa ; 
eyeipG), rjyspov, rjyopa. 

But if the a in the penult of the second aorist comes 
from at or r\ in the present, or is long there by position, 
the perfect changes it into r\ ; as, [laivofiat., efidvrjv, p,i\n)- 
va ; nXrjooix), EnXayov, irETcXriya ; -&dXX(x>, eOclXov, TsdTjXa ; 
tcXd^G), EicXayov, KEK,Xr\ya. 

The exceptions to this rule are the following : repaid), 
etcpayov, KSKpaya ; rrpdaao), enpayov, Trenpaya ; cppd^cj, 
ecppadov, necppdda ; ado, edda ; aycj, " to break," sdya. 

If the second aorist has i in the penult from a present 
in ££, the perfect middle changes it into 01 ; as, ttelOcj, etu- 
Oov, TTenotda ; Xelttg), eXlttov, XiXonta ; elSg), l6ov, olda. 

But if i be already in the present, the perfect merely 
lengthens it after having been short in the second aorist ; 
as, rpi^o), Erpiyov, TETplya. 

In some verbs the penult of the perfect middle remains 
short ; as, dfcfjKoa, from dfcovo) ; sXrjXvda, from eXevOoj. 
On the other hand, we have nscpEvya, from (pEvyoj ; kekevBo, 
from KEvdu) ; rsrEv^a, from tevx^. 

The verb prjooo) makes Eppuya ; so, also, we have eoX- 
rra, from eXttcj ; sopya, from spyu) ; elojOo,, from eOo). 

Some perfects appear to be formed immediately from the 
present by changing o) into a, and prefixing the reduplica- 
tion ; as, dovrro), dEdovna ; 6lo), didta ; and so, also, avuya, 
for jjvuya. 

The Pluperfect 
is formed from the perfect by prefixing e, and changing a 
into elv ; as, TErvna, etetvttecv. 



REMARKS ON THE PASSIVE TENSES, 119 

The First Aorist 
is formed from the first aorist active by adding \lt\v ; as, 
ervipa, ervipdfiTjv. 

The First Future 
is formed from the first future active by changing 6) into 
o\iai ; as, rvipoj, rvipo^ac, 

In verbs of the fourth conjugation w is changed into ov- 
jiai ; as, ipakti, ijjaXovfiat, 

The Secofid Aorist 
is formed from the second aorist active by changing ov into 
o\iT\v ; as, ervniov, ETVix%6\ir\v . 

The Second Future 
is formed from the second future active by changing w into 
ov\iai ; as, tvttCj, rvv:ov\iai. 

REMARKS ON THE PASSIVE TENSES. 
1. Present. 

1. The true Attic termination 1 of the second person sin- 
gular is el. And this form is employed also to distinguish 
the subjunctive from the indicative. The termination in 37 
for the second person of the present indicative belongs to 
the common dialect. 

2. The old form of the second person was in -eoai, from 
which the Ionians made -eat, and the Attics -el. Thus, 
TVTTTeoac ; Ion. tvtttecli ; Att. tvtttei ; common dialect. 

3. The old form in cat for the second person continued 
in use, I. In some contracted verbs ; as, ddvvdo^at, 66v- 
vdEoai ; fcavxdofiaL, Kav%deoai. II. In verbs in fit ; is, 

1. The old rule used to be, that only three verbs retained this ec in 
the second person, namely, (3ov2,o/j.cu, oTrro/j-ai, and olofiai, making re- 
spectively (3ov2.ei, otpei, and olet. But the best editions now restore ec 
to the second persons of all verbs. Compare Porson, Prof, ad Hec. 
p. iv. 



120 FORCE OF THE TENSES. 

lorafjuu, laraaai, &c. II [. In the perfect and pluperfect 
passive of all verbs ; the e, however, before the o, being 
dropped, and the double consonant brought in ; as, rervipai 
for reTvnsaat ; sTervipo for erer-Oneou. IV. In some ir- 
regular futures ; as, edopac, kdeoat ; (payopm, (pdyeaai. 

2. Imperfect. 

The old form of the second person singular of this tense 
was ervrrreao, from which the lonians made ervTrreo, and 
the Attics krvixrov. 

3. First Future. 

The second person singular of this tense ended original- 
ly in eocu, whence the lonians formed eat, and the Attics 
et. The form y belongs to the common dialect. 

3. FORCE OF THE TENSES. 

General Remarks. 

1. The time in which an action can take place is either 
present, past, or future. There are thus in Greek, as in ev- 
ery language, three principal tenses, the Present (6 evsa- 
rc5c), the Preterit, and the Future (6 fieXXoyv). 

2. Of the present there is only one simple form in Greek, 
but for the preterit there are more than in any other lan- 
guage. 

3. An action, for instance, is represented as either in itself 
and absolutely past, or as relatively past in respect to an- 
other time expressed or conceived. The aorist serves to 
denote the time entirely past ; the imperfect, the perfect, and 
the pluperfect, the relative time. 

4. The imperfect (6 napdranicog) represents a past ac- 
tion as continuing during another past action, and accom- 
panying it ; the perfect (xpovoc rcapaneiiievoe tg> Trapovri) 
and pluperfect (6 VTrepovvreXutoc} designate an action com- 
pleted, but continuing in its immediate consequences to an- 
other time ; the perfect to the present, the pluperfect to a 
time past. # 

5. In the same way the future is conceived under three 
modifications ; either as simply future, without reference 
to another action, as in the first and second futures active 



FORCE OF THE TENSES. 121 

and future middle ; or as future and complete, as in the 
■first and second futures passive ; or as future and wiih refer- 
ence to an action to take place in a still more remote futu- 
rity, as in the third future passive. 

Special Remarks. 

1. According to what has just been remarked, the pres- 
ent, as in all languages, designates an action present and 
still incomplete ; while, of the three tenses of past time, 
the aorist marks a past action in itself, without any refer- 
ence to another action at the same or a different time. 

2. The perfect, on the contrary, expresses an action 
which has taken place, indeed, at a previous time, but is 
connected, either in itself or its consequences, or its ac- 
companying circumstances, with the present time. Thus, 
eypaipa, "I wrote," signifies, indeed, the completion of the 
action ; but it does not determine whether the consequen- 
ces of it, namely, the writing which I have written, be still 
existing or not. On the contrary, yeypacpa, " I have writ- 
ten," besides indicating the fact of my having written, 
shows also the continued existence of the writing. In the 
same manner, yeydfirjtca, " I am married ;" on the contrary, 
eydfirjoa, " I married." Hence Kenrrjfiai signifies, " I pos- 
sess," properly, " I have acquired unto myself, and the ac- 
quisition is still mine." 

3. The perfect retains its reference to a continued action 
through all the moods. Thus, 6 p,ev Xr\arr\g ovrog eg rbv 
TlvpupXeyeOovTa ejji6e6Xrjado), " Let this robber be cast into 
Pyriphlegelhon, and remain there.'"' And again, e^iovreg, 
elnov rr\v -dvpav tteKkeloQai, " On going out, they gave di- 
rections that the door should be shut, and kept so." 

4. The imperfect expresses, 1. An action continuing du- 
ring another action which is past. It differs from the aorist 
in this, that the aorist marks an action past, but transient ; 
the imperfect an action past, but at that time continuing. 
Thus, rovg TreXraardg ede^avro (an immediate action) ol 
(3dp6apoL nal ep,dxovro (continued action) enel d' eyyvg 
fjoav (continued) ol bfrXlrai erpdirovTO (immediate); nal ol 
uev TreXraarai evdvg elttovto (continued). " The barbari- 
ans received the targeteers and fought ; but when the heavy 
armed men were near they turned away in flight, and the 
targeteers immediately pursued them." 



122 FORCE OF THE TENSES. 

5. The imperfect also expresses, 2. An action continued 
by being frequently repeated ; as, rbv gltov tov kv ry x<*>- 
pa dietydeipers Kal tt\v yiyv erefivere. " You destroyed, 
from time to time, the grain throughout the country, and you 
ravaged the land." 

6. This same tense also expresses, on some occasions, 
an action begun or contemplated, but not completed ; or, in 
other words, an attempt not brought to a successful conclu- 
sion. As, EfiLodovTO, "he wished to hire" [Herod. 1. 68) ; 
and again, rdfi' eOvrjarce re/tva, " my children were on the 
point of losing their lives." 

7! The third future passive refers to an action which 
will be permanent or continued in future time ; and it there- 
fore bears the same relation to the other futures as, among 
the tenses of the past time, the perfect does to the aorist. 
It is sometimes, therefore, in consequence of this, styled the 
Perfect's Future. Thus, ejioi de XeXscipsraL dXyea Xvypd, 
" while mournful woes shall continue to remain unto me." 
And again, 6 ttoXlttjc: ev KaraXoyco ovdeic fiSTsyypacprjoerat., 
aXX\ ticmep r\v to rrpoJrov, eyyeypdifjerat. " No citizen 
shall become enrolled in another class, but shall remain en- 
rolled in that in which he was at first." 

8. Hence, of those verbs whose present marks only the 
beginning of an action, but the perfect the complete action, 
the third future is used in order to show that the perfect 
action is to happen in future ; as, Krdoficu, " / acquire ;" 
K£fCT7]/iat, "I possess;" KEKTrjao/iaL, "/ shall possess." 
Whereas KTrjaojiaL means merely, " / shall acquire for my- 
self." 

9. The third future is therefore often used to express 
the rapidity of an action by taking, not the beginning of it, 
but its completion and the state resulting from it ; as, ttett- 
avaerai, " he shall instantly cease ;" TTETrpd^erai, " it shall 
be immediately done." It is this meaning which has ob- 
tained for it the less correct name of Paulo-post-futurum, 
namely, what will take place soon, or a little after the 
present. 

10. Besides the simple forms of the future, there is also 
a periphrastic future, made up of jieXXg) and the infinitive 
of the present, the aorist, or the future, and corresponding 
with the Latin periphrastic future of the participle in urus 
and the verb sum. It answers to the English, " being about 
to do anything;" " intending to do a thing" &c. 



FORCE OF THE TENSES. 123 

11. The aorist not only refers to instantaneous action, 
but is also frequently employed with the meaning, " to be 
wont." Thus, 7Jv rig tovtojv ri napadaivy tyr\\iiav ETxiQe- 
aav, " If any person transgress any one of these, they inflict 
punishment upon him" 

12. The second aorist differs from the first in form alone, 
not in meaning. Two modes of forming the past or his- 
torical tense got early into use in Greece ;' the one gave 
that which we call the first aorist, the other that which we 
call the second aorist. The former, from its origin, was 
truly a distinct tense, having a system of terminations alto- 
gether peculiar to itself ; but the latter is little else than a 
slight modification of the imperfect. Usage early declared 
itself in favour of the former ; and, at the period when Greek 
literature began, the second form obtained only in a limited 
number of the more primitive verbs ; while every verb of 
more recent and derivative formation exhibited the first ex- 
clusively. In a very few words only are both forms to be 
found ; and even in these, the duplicates, for the most part, 
belong to different dialects, ages, or styles. In import, these 
two forms of the aorist never differed. 

13. A satisfactory illustration of the principle which has 
just been stated in relation to the second aorist may be 
found in our own language. In English, also, there are 
two originally distinct modes of forming the common past 
tense : the first by adding the syllable ed, as in I killed ; 
the other chiefly by certain changes in the vowels ; as in / 
wrote, I saw, I knew, I ran, &c. Let the student call the 
former and regular form the first aorist, and the latter the 
second, and he will have a correct idea of the amount of 
the distinction between those tenses in Greek. The form 
ervipa in Greek is what / killed is in English ; that is, the 
regular form of the past tense, which obtains in a vast ma- 
jority of verbs : the form sXa6ov, on the contrary, is alto- 
gether analogous to / took, or / saw, acknowledged by all 
grammarians not as a second or distinct preterit, but as 
an instance of irregular variety of formation obtaining in 
certain verbs. 

14. It may be objected to this view of the subject, that 
there are verbs in Greek in which both forms of the aorist 
occur. A careful examination, however, will prove that 

1. Philological Museum, No. iv.,p. 197. Cambridge, 1832. 



124 voices. 

the number of such verbs is extremely small compared with 
that of those which have only the one or the other aorist. 
But even here the analogy is supported by the English 
verb, since we meet with many instances in which English 
verbs retain both forms of the preterit. Thus, for exam- 
ple, / hanged, or / hung ; I spit, or / spat ; I awaked, or / 
awoke ; I cleft, I clave, or I clove. Such duplicates in 
Greek verbs are extremely rare ; probably there is not one 
Greek verb in live hundred in which they can be met with. 
The form called the second aorist is, indeed, common 
enough ; but, then, where it exists, that of the first aorist 
is almost always wanting. We have evpov, eXa6ov, eidov, 
TJyayov, eXlttov, edpafiov ; but the regular form is as much 
a nonentity in these verbs as it is in the English verbs / 
found, I took, I saw, I led, I left, I ran, &c. The first 
aorist in these would be sheer vulgarity ; it would be par* 
allel to I fnded, I taked, I seed. 

15. In strictness, therefore, the Greek verb has but one 
aorist active ; that aorist, when regular, following the model 
of ervipa, but being sometimes formed less regularly, in 
another manner, like eXadov. JNow and then, in the variety 
of dialects and styles, two forms appear in the same verb, 
as in eneiGa and emdov ; one of these, however, as in this 
instance enetaa, being that in ordinary use, the other rare, 
anomalous, and nearly obsolete. 

16. The second future, also, has only, in strictness, an 
existence in name, and the same principle may be applied 
to it as in the case of the second aorist. Verbs in Xo), fio, 
vg), po, have no second future ; in other verbs the second 
future is only a dialect modification of the first. 

4. VOICES. 
The active and passive voices of the Greek verb have 
nothing very peculiar in their signification when compared 
with the corresponding voices of the Latin verb. We shall 
therefore confine our remarks to 

The Middle Voice. 

1. The Middle Voice has been so called by grammarians, 
as having a middle signification between the active and 
passive, implying neither action nor passion simply, but a 
union in some degree of both. 



voices. 125 

2. The principal usages of the middle voice are five in 
number. The first four may be called usages of reflexive, 
the fifth the usage of reciprocal signification. 1 

I. Where A does the act on himself, or on what 
belongs to himself ; or, in other words, is the ob- 
ject of his own action ; as, dv:r\y^aro, " he hung 
himself;" KE&aXryv efcoiparo, " he wounded his own 
head" 
II. Where A does the act on some other object M, 
relatively to himself, and not for another person ; 
as, Karearpeif>aro rbv M.r\6ov, " he made the Median 
subject to himself." 

III. Where A gets an act done for himself, or for 
those belonging to him, by B. Thus of Chryses 
it is said, in the Iliad, that he came to the Grecian 
camp, Xvobfievoc tivyarpa, " to get his daughter 
released by Agamemnon, on the payment of a ran- 
som " that is, briefly, " to ransom his daughter." 
Whereas, of Agamemnon it is said, ovd' aneXvce 
tivyarpa, " he did not release her" namely, to 
Chryses. Under this same head may be ranked 
the following instances : dtdd^aodat rbv vlbv, 
" to get one's son instructed ;" Savsi^d), " to lend ,•" 
davsl^ojiac, " to get a loan for one's self" " to bor- 
row." 

IV. Where, in such verbs as Konroiiac, " to mourn;" 
cevo\iai, " to urge one's self on" the direct action 
is done by A on himself, but an accusative or 
other case follows of B, whom that action farther 
regards. Thus, snoipavro avrbv, " they mourned 
for him ;" i. e., they cut or lacerated themselves 

for him. ^evovrat avrbv, " they stir themselves 
in pursuit of him." 'JZriXXeodrjv avrbv, " they 
tore their hair in mourning for him." So, also, 
t <pvXd%ai rbv nalSa, " to guard the boy ;" but <pv- 
Xd^aoQai rbv Xsovra, " to guard one's self against 
the lion" And again, where, in the Iliad, it is 
said of Hector, wc ent&v, ov rcaldoc opegaro, " thus 
having spoken, he stretched out his arms to receive 
his son." 

1. Mus. Crit. No. 1, p. 102, seq. 
L2 



126 voices. 

V. Where the action is reciprocal between two 
persons or parties, and A does to B what B does 
to A ; as in verbs signifying to contract* quarrel, 
fight, converse, &c. Thus, in Demosthenes, it is 
said, ec5c av diaXvo&iieda rbv ttoXejiov, " until we 
shall have put an end to the war, by treaty mutual- 
ly agreed upon." To this head belong such verbs 
as fjL&xeodai, cmevdeodai, diaXeyeaOai, &c. 

2. Though, on some occasions, the active voice is used 
where the middle would be proper, that is, where the act 
is denoted without relation to the agent, though there does 
exist a middle verb, so to denote it, yet where the two 
voices exist in actual use, the middle denoting the action 
relatively to the agent, as in No. II., is very seldom, if ever, 
in pure Attic, used to denote the action when it regards 
another person. Thus, {cravat rponaiov may be said of 
an army who erect their own trophy ; for it is true, as far 
as it goes, they do erect a trophy. But earrjoaro rponaiov 
cannot be said of him who erected a trophy for others, but 
only eorrjaev. 

3. In many verbs, the perfect, pluperfect, and aorist pas- 
sive are used in a middle sense, besides the ordinary mean- 
ing of the passive. Thus, emdedetypevog rrjv Trovnpiav, 
" having openly manifested his wickedness " fisfiLGdcdfjievog 
%tjpov, " having hired a piece of ground ;" KarettXtdr], " he 
laid himself down ;" anrjXXdyr], " he departed" The regu- 
lar middle form of the aorist in such verbs is unusual or 
obsolete. In some it has a special signification ; as, oraX- 
rjvai, " to travel ;" but areiXaadat, " to array one's self." 1 

1. As regards the use of the perfect and pluperfect passive in a mid- 
dle sense, the opinion of Buttmann appears the most rational, that in all 
cases where a verb has a regular middle voice, with its appropriate re- 
flex signification, the perfect and pluperfect passive, and they alone, are 
used as the perfect and pluperfect of that voice, and possess that signifi- 
cation along with their own. In conformity with this doctrine, the mid- 
dle voice would seem to be nothing else than the passive verb, used 
under a peculiar modification of its meaning, and illustrating the ten- 
dency of the Greeks in early times to look upon themselves in all reflex 
acts, whether external or internal, as patients rather than agents ; a ten- 
dency which is exemplified in every page of the Homeric poems, and 
which belongs more or less to every people in an early stage of civiliza- 
tion, before the nation comes of age, and acquires the consciousness, 
along with the free use, of its powers. This seems to be the reason I 



voices. 127 

4. With regard to the perfect middle* it may be remarked, 
that this tense is of very rare occurrence, so as to have far 
more the character of an occasional redundancy than of a 
regular formation. In fact, when the preterit exists in this 
particular form, it very rarely exists in the same verb in 
any other form ; and where two forms do occur, it will gen- 
erally be found that the one did not come into use till the 
other was growing obsolete. The perfect middle, it is true, 
has undoubtedly some degree of alliance with a neuter 
meaning, but then this alliance is very far from being con- 
stant. This form has often a truly active and transitive 
signification ; as, for example, XeXoiira, " / have left ,•" eic- 
rova, " i" have killed ,-" while, on the other hand, the form 
considered as active is of frequent occurrence in a neuter 
or reflex sense ; as in nen^na, " / am weary ;" eoTTjfca, " / 
stand ;" fiefievrjKa, " / remain ;" (3e6tG)ica, " / have lived" 
&e. These instances, which might be easily multiplied, 
are sufficient to prove that there is no good ground for as- 
signing to either of these forms of the perfect any determi- 
nate cast of signification, whether it be active or neuter. 
Some preference of what is called the middle form for the 
neuter sense is the utmost that can with truth be ascer- 
tained. In a few instances both the forms certainly do ex- 
ist, and with a characteristic difference of signification ; as, 
dXuXeita, " I have destroyed ;" and bXoXa, " / am undone ;" 
TTErcetna, " I have persuaded ;" and nenoida, " I am confi- 
dent;" mothers the two forms occur, indeed, but with little 



why so many of the verbs employed by the Greeks to denote states of 
mind or of feeling have a passive form, such as olofiat (otfjac), alcddvo- 
iiac, CKeTtTOfiac, knioTafiaL, (3ovXo/j.at, dyafjat, fydofiat, fj.acvofj.ai. In 
some tenses, indeed, in which a variety of forms presented, itself, one of 
them was allotted more peculiarly to the passive signification, another to 
the middle : that instinct which, in all languages, is evermore silently at 
work in giving definiteness to the speech of a people, in proportion as 
its thoughts become more definite, manifested itself in assigning one 
form of the future and aorist to the passive voice, another to the middle ; 
the preference being perhaps determined by the affinity of the latter to 
the corresponding active tenses, of the former to the perfect passive. 
Instances, however, remain to show that, at the time when the Greek 
language comes first into view, the line of demarcation was not deemed 
quite impassable ; and the passive voice would not unfrequently assert 
its rights to its cast-off future, and now and then, though very rarely, 
even to the aorist. Philol. Museum, No. iv., p. 221, seq. 
1. Thiol. Museum, No. iv., p. 200. 



128 FORCE OF THE MOODS. 

discrimination in sense ; as, ireiTpaxa and nenpaya, dedoiica 
and dedia. 

5. The future middle is often found in a passive sense, 
the reason of which appears to be this. That form of the 
future which, in the later ages of the Greek language, 
when the grammarians wrote, seems to have been used ex- 
clusively in a middle sense, had previously a wider range 
legitimately belonging to it. 






5. FORCE OF THE MOODS. 

Indicative. 

The indicative is used in Greek when anything is to be 
represented as actually existing or happening, and as some- 
thing independent of the thought and conception of the 
speaker. Hence it is put in very many cases where, in 
Latin, the subjunctive must be used. 

1. The indicative is put after relatives, both pronouns 
and particles, where, in Latin, the dependance of this clause 
is expressed by the subjunctive ; the Greek often uses the 
future of the indicative to denote what shall or will happen^ 
not what is merely conceived as such. Thus, Suph. Philoct. 
303, ov yap rig opfiog eorlv, ov6' ottoi ttXscjv, e^e^noXrjasL 
Kepdog, rj gevcdoerai, " For there is no harbour (here), nor 
any place unto which one sailing shall carry on therein gain- 
ful traffic, or be hospitably entertained." 

2. The indicative is also used after negative propositions 
with the relative ; as, Trap' ejiol ovdelg iiiodocpopel, bong p) 
luavog koriv caa novelv efiol, " No soldier serves for pay 
with me who is not able to endure equal toils with me." 
Here the Latin idiom would require qui possit. 

3. The indicative is likewise used in indirect interroga- 
tions ; thus, opart ri ttoiovjiev, " You see what we are act- 
ually doing." Whereas, opare ri noitifiev means, " You 
see what we are to do" So, also, enelvog olds riva rponov 
ol veot diacpdeipovTCLL, " He knows in what way the young 
are actually destroyed." Here diafyQeipoivro av would 
mean, " might have been destroyed" 






Imperative. 

The imperative is used in Greek, as in other languages 
in addresses, entreaties, commands, &c. The personal 






FORCE OF THE MOODS. 129 

pronouns, as in other languages, are omitted, except when 
they serve for distinction or have an emphasis. 

1. The second person sometimes receives an indefinite 
subject, and thus stands, as it were, for the third ; as, nale, 
reals nag ng av, " Strike, strike, every one, whosoever thou 
mayst be." 

2. Sometimes the plural of the imperative is used, though 
only one person be addressed, whenever strength of feeling 
is meant to be expressed, or any other force is to be im- 
parted to the clause ; as, npoGeX6er\ g5 nal, narpi, " Come, 
oh my child, to thy father." 

3. The negative fir] is joined in prohibitions with the 
imperative, if the present tense be required ; but, if the 
aorist be needed, the mood then changes to the subjunc- 
tive ; as, Herod. 1, 155, av fievrot fii) ndvra {tv^u) %p£u, 
fjL7]6e et-avaoTrjorje nb"kiv dpxairjv, " Do not thou indeed 
yield in all things to thy anger, nor have destroyed an ancient 
city." So in Od. 16, 168, we have \ir\6* emuevde, " and 
be not concealing it;" but in Od. 15, 263, p,rj3' eniftevGtig, 
" and do not have concealed it." 

4. The imperative is used not unfrequcntly by the Attic 
poets in a dependant proposition after olod' wc, or olod' b ; 
as, Soph. (Ed. T. 543, olod' o)g ttoltjgov ; " Knowest thou in 
what way thou must act ?" (i. e., act, knowest thou in what 
way ?) ; oIgO' ovv b SpaGOV ; " knowest thou what to do ?" 
(i. e., do, knowest thou what ?) 

5. The imperative sometimes expresses not so much a 
command as a declaration of what is proper to be done, 
according to the situation in which a person is placed ; as, 
Eurip. Iph. T. 337, ev%ov 6e roiad' G<pdyta napelvac, 
" thou shouldst wish, therefore, for such victims to be pres- 
ent." So, also, JEschyl. Prom. 713, GTeZ%' dvr\p6rovg 
yvag, " thou must s[o over unploughed fields." 

6. Hence the imperative is found also in interrogations, 
after particles or the relative ; as, Plat. Leg. 7, p. 801, D., 
rl ovv ; keIgOo) vo\iog ; " what then ? shall a law exist ?" 

Optative. 

The optative and subjunctive express, according to its 
different modifications and shades of meaning, that which 
in Latin can only be signified by the subjunctive. Both 
represent an action, not as something real, but rather as 



130 FORCE OF THE MOODS. 

something only conceived of. That which is conceived of, 
however, is either something merely possible, probable, de- 
sirable, and, consequently, uncertain, or something which, 
as it depends on external circumstances, may be expected 
with some dehniteness. The former is expressed by the 
optative, the latter by the subjunctive. Hence, 

The optative is used to indicate a wish, something mere- 
ly possible or probable, and, therefore, especially accompa- 
nies past actions. 

Optative in dependant propositions. 

1. The optative is used in the expression of a wish, and 
is then put without av, or its equivalent the poetic ne ; as, 
rioeiav Aavaol e\ia Sd/cpva ooioi fie"keooiv, " May the 
Greeks atone for my tears by thy arrows." And again, w 
ttol yevoio Tcarpbg evrv^eoTepog, " Oh, my son, mayst thou 
be more fortunate than thy father ." 

2. In this case, el, el yap, or elde, utinam, or wc, or else 
TTGJg av, are often used with the optative ; as, Od. 3, 205, 
el yap ejioi rooorjvde tieoi 6vva\iiv Trapadelev, " Would 
that the gods had bestowed upon me so great power" And 
again, Callim. frag. 7, XaXv6u)V wc drroXotro yevog, " Would 
that the race of the Chalybes might perish.'''' 

3. On other occasions the optative is used in connexion 
with av, or its equivalent the poetic ice, in order to give to 
a proposition an expression of mere conjecture or bare pos- 
sibility, and hence of uncertainty or doubt. Thus, Plato, 
Lfg. 3, p. 677, B., ol rore 7repL<pvy6vTeg rrjv (bdopav c%e- 
Sov bpeiot Ttveg av elev vofielg, " They who on that occasion 
escaped destruction were, probably, with a few exceptions, 
mountain shepherds." So, also, Xenophon, Cyrop. 1, 2, 11, 
aal BripCovreg \iev ovk av dptor7]oaiev, " And while actually 
engaged in the hunt they hardly ever breakfast" Hence it 
is employed in a rough estimate ; as, Xen. Cyrop. 1,2, 13, 
elr\aav fiev av ovtol rcXelov ri rj TTevrrjKovra err] yeyovoreg 
and yevedg, " These, on a rough estimate, arc somewhat more 
than fifty years of age." 

4. The optative with av is therefore employed also to 
denote an inclination, the indulgence of which depends on 
circumstances, and which is therefore only possible and 
contingent. Thus, $ov\oi\ir\v av, " / could wish ,*" eftovX- 
6y,7]V av, " I could have wished" So, also, Plato, Crat. p. 



FORCE CF THE MOODS. 131 

411, A., r\6e(j)g av deaaaijirjv ravra rd fcaXd ovouara, "I 
would gladly contemplate those fine terms." 

5. Hence the optative occurs in interrogations ; as, 11. 
3, 52, ovk av dfj fietveiag ' Apr]i(pi.Xov MsveXaov ; " Couldst 
thou not then await Menelaus dear-to-Mars ?" So, also, 
Plato, Gorg., dXX' apa edeXrjasiev av 7\\ilv di,aXe%d7]vac ; 
" But would he be willing to converse with us?" 

6. Very often, however, the optative serves to express 
even the most definite assertions with modesty and polite- 
ness, as a mere conjecture ; a moderation which, in conse- 
quence of their political equality, was peculiar to all the 
Greeks, but particularly the Athenians, and which very 
seldom occurs in modern languages. Thus, Aristoph. 
Plut. 284, ovkst' av upvipaific, " I will no longer conceal it 
from you" 

Of the Optative in dependant propositions, or after con- 
junctions. 

1 . When the chief verb of the whole proposition, or, in 
other words, the leading verb in the sentence, expresses 
an action of past time, the following verb, which* depends 
upon the conjunction, is put in the optative. If, on the 
other hand, the leading verb be in the present or the future 
tense, the following verb is put in the subjunctive. Thus, 
that which is in Latin the sequence of tenses, is in Greek 
the sequence of moods. The subjunctive, therefore, in 
Greek, after a conjunction, answers to the Latin present of 
the subjunctive ; while the optative after a conjunction an- 
swers to the Latin imperfect of the subjunctive. 

2. The conjunctions and particles after which these 
moods are thus put are, 1. Those which express a pur- 
pose ; as, Iva, b(ppa, wc, onoyg, and \ir\. 2. Particles of 
time ; as, enec, erceLd-fj, ore, wc, and etttjv, eTTStddv, orav, 
TTptv, eojg, &c. 3. Conditional particles ; as, el, and edv, 
rjv. 4. Relatives ; as, 6c, olog, baog, onov, bOev, &c. 

1. Optative after Iva, b&pa, &c. 

1. Here, particularly, the rule just mentioned holds good, 
according to which the optati ^e is put after verbs of past 
time ; as, Tvdeidrj YiaXXag eduj/ce \iivog nai tidpoog, iv' eie- 
dijXog yevocro nai aXiog apouro, " Minerva gave strength 



132 FORCE OF THE MOODS. 

and daring to Tydides, in order that he might become con- 
spicuous, and might bear off renown." 

2. The optative is also employed when the leading verb 
is in the present tense as used for the past. Thus, Eurip. 
Hec. 10, ttoXvv 6e ovv efioi xpvobv eKixe\nret Xddpa irarfip, 
iv', elitot' 'IXlov rei^i) ttsgoi, rolg ^gxjiv sir] natal \ir\ enrd- 
vig (3iov, " And my father sends out secretly along with me a 
large quantity of gold, in order that, if the walls of Ilium 
should fall, there might be unto his surviving children no want 
of the means of subsistence.''' 1 

3. Sometimes, also, the optative is used after a leading 
verb in the present or future, when the action which fol- 
lows the conjunction is to be marked as only presumptive 
and probable. Thus, Od. 2, 52, irarpbg fiev eg olkov amep- 
piyaai (present perfect) veeoQai 'Inapiov, <hg k' avrbg eed- 
VGHJairo ftvyarpa, " They dread to go to the house of her 
Icarian father, that he may perhaps give some dowry to his 
daughter." So, also, Soph. (Ed. Col. 11, arr\o6v fie Ka%i- 
dpvoov, wc TTvdotfMeda, " Place and seat me here, that we may 
perchance learn." 

4. Very frequently, where the leading verb is in the past 
tense, the following verb is put after Iva, wc, or \ir\, in the 
indicative mood, to express an action which should have 
happened, but has not. Thus, Eurip. Phozn. 213, Tvptov 

oldfia Xlttovg' edav iv* imb dsipdat Uapvaaov na- 

revdo6r]v, " Having left the Tyrian wave, I came hither 
and should have been now dwelling beneath the sum- 
mits of Parnassus." 

2. Optative after particles of time. 

1. The optative is put with the particles ettel, ettelS^, 
ore, ottote, where the discourse is concerning a past action, 
which, however, was not limited to a precise point of time, 
but was often repeated by several persons or in several 
places. Thus, //. 3, 232, TToXXdnt \iiv ^eivlgoev 'Aprjtfa- 
Xoc MeveXaog, ottote KprjTTjdev Ikolto, " Menelaus, beloved 
of Mars, often entertained him when he. came from Crete." 
So, also, Herod. 7, 6, otcog clttlkolto eg bipiv rrjv $aaiXr\og 
.... KareXeye tu>v %pr\o~p,&v , " As often as he came into 
the presence of the king he mentioned some of the oracles." 

2. With the remaining particles of time, which do not 
determine a space of time during which an action takes 



FORCE OF THE MOODS. 133 

place, but a point of time before or until which something 
takes place, as, ewe , ear', av, irptv, pexpig °^-> tne optative 
is used, for the most part, in the same cases as with Iva 
and b<ppa. Thus, nepiefievof-iev ewe dvoixOelr] rb deafiGjr?]- 
piov, " We remained about the place until the prison was 
opened." But eo>g, " whilst? " as long as" has only the in 
dicative. 

3. Optative after conditional particles. 

1 The optative is used after conditional particles when 
the reference is to something that is merely possible or 
contingent. In this construction the optative is employed 
with av in the apodosis, or second clause of the sentence, 
to show that a case is adduced which is merely problemat- 
ical, while in the protasis, or leading clause, the optative 
is used with el, without av, as the condition itself is also 
only problematical. Thus, el rig rovg tcparovvrag rov 
nXrjdovg en' dperrrv nporpeipeiev, dfifiorepovg av (hcpeXrjae- 
lev, " If one would urge on to virtue those who control the 
multitude, he would benefit both." 

2. But when the condition contains a determinately ex- 
pressed case, ei is used with the indicative in the leading 
clause. Thus, Soph. Antig. 925, dXX', el pev ovv rad' 
eariv ev deolg <piXa, nadovreg av %vyyvolp,ev r\paprr\K6reg, 
" But if then, these things are approved of among the gods, 
tee may, perhaps, by suffering, be made conscious that we have 
erred." 

3. On the other hand, el is used with the optative in the 
protasis, or leading clause, and the indicative in the apodo- 
sis, or succeeding part of the sentence, when the latter as- 
serts something definitely, while the protasis conveys only 
a possible case. Thus, Thucyd. 2, 5, ol aXXoi Qnbaloi, 
ovg edei rr\g vvurbg rcapayeveadai navarparia, ei ri dpa pr} 
7rpox(*)poi7} rolg eaeXrjXvdoai, ene(3orjdovv, " The rest of the 
Thebans whom it behooved to be present during the night with 
their full force, if, perchance, success should not attend those 
who had entered the city" 

4. Optative after the relatives bg, bang, &c. 

1. If the relatives refer to definite persons or things, 
they are followed by the indicative ; but if the person or 
M 



134 FORCE OF THE MOODS. 

tiling be indefinite, then the verb is in the optative or sub- 
junctive ; in the optative with av when the whole proposi- 
tion affirms something of past time, and in the subjunctive 
with av when it affirms something of present or future 
time. Thus, ovriva p,ev $aoikr\a aal e^o^ov dvdpa klxelt], 
rovd' dyavolg etteeooiv eprjrvcFaoKe irapaardg, " Whatever 
monarch and distinguished chieftain he found, this one, stand- 
ing by his side, he detained by bland words." And again, 
navrag ora> evtvxolev, nal rraldag nal yvvalnag, ktelvov- 
reg, " Slaying all, whomsoever they might meet, both children 
and. women" 

2. From these, however, are to be distinguished those 
passages in which the optative is put after the relatives, 
in the sense which it usually has in independent proposi- 
tions. Here it regularly takes av, and is found even when 
a present action is spoken of. Thus, ovk eon rovrov ba- 
Tig av tcaranrdvoi, " There is no one who might slay this 
person." And again, ov yap eart, irepl orov ovrc av md- 
avejrepov elttol 6 pTjropiKog rj dXXog ootlgovv, " For there 
is nothing about which the rhetorician would not speak in a 
more persuasive manner than any other person whatsoever." 

5. Optative in the " oratio obliqua." 

1. When anything that has been said or thought by an- 
other is quoted as such, not as an idea or sentiment of the 
writer himself, and yet, not in the words of the speaker, 
but in narration (i. e., in oratione obliqua), the optative is 
frequently used and without av. Thus, ol 'A%apV7Jg end- 
ki^ov tov UeputXsa, on orparrrybg &v ovk ene^dyoi, " The 
Acharnians reviled Pericles, because, being commander, he 
did not lead forth against the foe." And again, Ticroa- 
<t>£pv7)g fisv wfioGev ' 'AyrjaiXdoy , el OTxtioavro, eo)g eXOoiev, 
ovg ite/i^sle repbg fiaoiXsa dyyiXovg, " Tissaphernes took an 
oath unto Agesilaus, that, if the latter will make a truce with 
him until the messengers should return, whom he had sent to 
the king" &c. Here nefitpEie is used to indicate a mere 
assertion on the part of Tissaphernes, for the truth of which 
the writer does not mean to vouch. 

2. In particular, the optative is put in this case after on 
or we, whether the action belongs to the present, past, or 
future time. Thus, ry 6s vorEpaia t\kev dyysXog Xsycov, 
on XeXotncbg eiTf Iivevveaig rd dfcpa, " On the following 
day, however a messenger came with the intelligence that 



FORCE OF THE MOODS. 135 

Syennesis had left the heights ;" i. e., had left (XeXoincjg 
eci]) the heights, as the messenger said. And again, ay- 
yeZXcLL, bri (pdpfiatcov mcjv dnoddvoi, " To announce that, 
having drunk poison, he had died." 

Subjunctive. 

The general distinction between the optative and sub- 
junctive has already been given, but may here be stated 
again. These two moods both represent an action, not as 
something real, but rather as something only conceived of. 
That which is conceived of, however, is either something 
merely possible, probable, desirable, and, consequently, un- 
certain, or something which, as it depends on external cir- 
cumstances, may be expected with some definiteness. 
The former is expressed by the optative, the latter by the 
subjunctive. 

1. Subjunctive in independent propositions. 

1. The subjunctive is used without dv or ke in exhorta- 
tions in the first person plural ; as, lg){j,ev, " let us go ;" 
\iax^eOa, " let us fight." It indicates, therefore, that 
something ought to take place.* But in the second and 
third persons the optative is used, as implying more of un- 
certainty, when the speaker refers not to himself along 
with others, but to others merely. Thus, eX6o)[iev dvd da- 
rv, Kal gv yivoC dv ov ica/cog, " Let us go throughout the 
city, and do thou become not cowardly " The first person 
singular of the subjunctive is often found in exhortations in 
Homer ; as, ld(x)\iai, " let me see ;" Xla^u^ dvepa rovrov, 
" let me supplicate this man." 

2. The subjunctive is employed in questions of indecis- 
ion and doubt, when a person asks himself or another 
what he is to do. In these cases it occurs, as in the pre- 
vious instances, without dv, and with or without an inter- 
rogative particle. Thus, av6t [ievg) fierd toZol, tjs Seg) us- 
rd a' avrtg, " Shall I wait there with these, or shall I run 
back again unto thee . ? " And again, rl <p£j ; re dpoj ; " what 
am I to say 1 what am I to do ?" 

3. In a similar way, the subjunctive is used without a 
conjunction, and without dv after (3ovXel in interrogations. 
Thus, (3ovXel Xadoj/xat drjra Kal -&CyG) ri cov\ " Dost thou 
wish, then, that I take hold of thee, and touch thee in 
aught ?" 



136 FORCE OF THE MOODS. 

4. The subjunctive is also employed in questions of in- 
dignation, with which a previous command or injunction is 
repeated. Thus, Aristoph. Ran., 1132, AION. Aio^vAe, 
Tcapaivo) goi GLMTcav. AI2X. eyo) GLomco ru)6e; " Bacch. 
JEschylus % I admonish you to be silent. iEsch. Am I to be 
silent before this man ?" 

5. In negative propositions, the subjunctive is used after 
pi) or ov pi) for the future ; but, usually, only the first aorist 
subjunctive passive, or the second aorist active and middle. 
Instead of the first aorist active the future is employed. 
Thus, JEsch. S. c. Th. 201, XevGTr)pa drjpov d' ovti pi) (pvyrj 
popov, " And by no means shall any one escape death by sto- 
ning at the hands of the people" And again, Soph. E,lectr. 
42, ov yap Ge pi) yi)pa re not %pov^ panpti) yvcJG' ovd' 
imoTTTEVGOvGiv 0)6' 7]v6ig[jL£Vov, " For they shall not, through 
both thine own age and the long lapse of time, recognise, or 
even suspect thee thus attired." This construction probably 
arose from ov dedoLtca fir) yvCJGL, " / am not afraid that 
they will not know thee ;" i. e., they certainly will not know 

. thee. This being stronger than ov yvcooovrai, this ov fir) 
was also prefixed, for the sake of a stronger negation, to 
the future tense. 1 

6. From this case, however, we must distinguish p,i) ov 
with the subjunctive, in which also dedoitca is omitted. 
Thus, Plato, Phad., p. 67, B., fir) naBapip yap nadapov 
ecpdnrsGdai pi) ov depurbv %j, " Since I fear it is not lawful 
for an impure person to touch one that is pure." In Latin 
this would be vereor ne nefas sit, which is also a milder ex- 
pression for nefas est. 

2. Subjunctive in dependant propositions. 

1. If the leading verb be in the present or future tense, 
the following verb is put in the subjunctive, with and with- 
out av. Thus, aXX' Idi, pi) p' epedu^e, Gaciorepog &g ice' 
ver)ac, " But go, provoke me not, in order that thou mayst 
return in greater safety than otherwise." And again, Ae^w 
Iva eldf/g, " / will speak, that thou mayst know." 

2. The subjunctive, moreover, is frequently used, although 
the preceding verb be in the perfect tense, when the verb 

1. Passages sometimes occur where ov fir] appears with the first ao- 
rist subjunctive. These are generally altered by critics, and the aorist 
is converted into a future. But consult Matthia, G. G. vol. ii., p. 876, 
ed. 5. 



FORCE OF THE MOODS. 137 

which depends upon the conjunction denotes an action 
that is continued to the present time. Thus, Horn. II. 
5, 127, ax^-vv 6' av roc an' ocbdaXficov eXov, r) nplv enrjev, 
6(pp' ev yLV&otcng rjfiev $ebv rjde tcai dvSpa, " I have, more- 
over, taken away from thy eyes the darkness that was previ- 
ously upon them, in order that thou mayst know well either a 
god or a man." At the time at which Minerva is here rep- 
resented as speaking, yivtiofcrjg is a consequence still con- 
tinuing of the past action denoted by d%Xvv elXov. 

3. The future is often used instead of the subjunctive. 
In this case the future expresses a state that continues, or 
something that will occur at an indefinite future time. The 
aorist of the subjunctive, on the other hand, indicates a 
transient state occurring in particular cases, and then com- 
pletely concluded. Thus, Spare \ir\ eitdoTG) rjfjiwv nal 6(p- 
OaX/icov K,ai xeip&v 6er\oet, " See whether each one of us will 
not need both eyes and ears." On the contrary, bpare fir} 
irddojjAev, " See whether we shall not have suffered" 

3. Subjunctive after particles of time. 

1 . The subjunctive is put with enrjv, eneiddv, orav, bno- 
rav, where the discourse is concerning an action belonging 
to present or future time. Thus, bnep nal vvv en noiovoiv 
ol j3dp6apoc (3doiXelg, bnbrav orparonedevc^vrat, " Which 
the barbarian monarchs do still, even at the present day, 
whenever they encamp." 

2. Sometimes the subjunctive with these particles does 
not express an action frequently repeated at the present 
time, but merely a future action. Thus, ov yap er' aXXrj 
ear at daXnoprj enel av ov ye norfiov enion'ng, " For no 
longer will there be any other solace, when thou shalt have 
encountered thy destined end." 

4. Subjunctive after conditional particles. 

When in the apodosis, or latter part of the sentence, the 
future, or the imperative, or an indicative is found, then the 
condition is expressed by el with the future, or more mildly 
by edv, r\v, av (in the Ionic poets el, ice, or a'l/ce), with the 
subjunctive, and uncertainty is denoted with the prospect 
of decision. Thus, edv ri e^w^ev, ddao\iev, " If we have 
anything, we will give it." And again, edv rig riva t&v 
imapxovTG)v vbfKov [irj KaXdg e%ew ryp\Tai, ypaxpeodo), " If 
M2 



138 



DEPONENT VERBS. 



any one think any one of the existing laws unsuitable, let him 
petition against it" 

5. Subjunctive after the relatives og, oarcg, olog, &c. 

The subjunctive is employed with av after relatives when, 
the proposition affirms something of present or future time. 
Thus, eneade ottol av rig riy^rai, " Follow, whithersoever 
one may lead you." And again, bv 6s /c' ey&v anavevBe 
fid^ng edeXovra vorjao) pifivd&iv, ov ol apKiov ioourai (j)v- 
yieiv nvvag 7]6' olojvovg, " But whomsoever I shall perceive 
inclining to remain apart from the fight, it shall not be possi- 
ble for him to escape the dogs and birds" 



DEPONENT VERBS. 

1. Deponent verbs may be referred to the class of mid- 
dle ones. 

2. They have the middle form, except in the perfect, 
pluperfect, and third future, or paulo-post-futurum, of which 
the forms are passive. Their perfect has sometimes both 
an active and passive sense ; as, e'ipyaofiai, from Ipyd^o- 
pat. 

3. Some of these verbs have, besides a middle, a passive 
first aorist and first future, the signification of which is pas- 
sive. In the other tenses a middle meaning may generally 
be traced. 

4. The following is a synopsis of their form. 

Moods and Tenses of Deponent Verbs. 





Indie. 


Imper. 


Optat. 


Subj. 


Infin. 


Part. 


Present, 
Imperfect, 


dexofiai, ) 

kdEXOflTjV, J 


6ex-ov, 


-oiprjv, 


-upac, 


-Eadai, 


-opevoc, 


Perfect, 
Pluperfect, 


6edey/j.ac, ) 
edeS£y/j.rjv, $ 


dide-go, 


-yfiEVOc, 

ECTJV, 


•ypsvoc, 

6>, 


-Xdai, 


-ypsvoc, 


1st Aorist M. 


kSe^dfirjv, 


de^-ac, 


-aiprjv, 
-oijirjv, 


-upac, 


-aadai, 


-apsvoc, 


1st Future M. 


detj-ofiai, 






-EcQac, 


-opEVOC, 


1st Aorist P. 


edexdrjv, 


6ex6-7]Tt, 


-E17]V, 


-u, 


-7jvac, 


-EIC, 


1st Future P. 


dsxdrjG-opai, 




-oifir/v, 
-oiurjv, 




-Eadat, 


•OpEVOC, 


3d Future P. 


dedsg-0/j.ai, 






-Eadai, 


-OflEVOC 



5. A few of these verbs have a second aorist middle ; as, 
irvvOdvopat, eTrvddfirjv. 



CONTRACTED VERBS. 139 

CONTRACTED VERBS. 

1. Verbs in aw, ew, and 6<o correspond entirely, in their 
general formation, to the rules and examples already given 
for verbs in o). 

2. But in the present and imperfect of the active and 
passive forms, where the vowels a, «, o stand immediately 
before the vowels of the flexible endings, there arises in the 
Attic and common language a contraction, the rules for 
which are as follows : 

3. Verbs in do) contract ao), ao, and aov into o) ; as, ti\l- 
dcj, TifiG) ; rcfidofisv, ti\i&\lev ; rifidovac, ri-fiojai. Other- 
wise they contract into a ; as, ripae, rtfta. They also 
subscribe i ; as, rifidoifxi, tl[io)[il ; rifjideig, rifxag. 

4. Verbs in eo) contract ee into ei, and eo into ov ; as, 
4>iXse, (piXec ; <piXEO[iev, faXovfiev. Otherwise they drop 
e ; as, (piXeo), <piX6) ; (piXeetg, <pcXelg. 

5. Verbs in 6(0 contract o, with a long vowel, into o) ; as, 
dr}X6o), drjXCd ; with a short vowel, or ov, into ov ; as, drj- 
Xosre, drjXovre ; StjXoovoc, drjXovot. Otherwise into oi ; 
as, d7]X6qg, drjXolg. In the infinitive oeiv is contracted into 
ovv. 

6. Four verbs in do), namely, £ao), irscvdo), diipdo), and 
Xpaofiai, contract as into r\, and aei into xi \ as, £aw, ^c, 
£§, #/Te, $Jv ; imperfect e£a>v, e^g, ££7. So, also, newx/v, 
dtiprjv, xPXl a Qa> 1 , XPV rat - 

7. Dissyllables in so) are contracted in the imperative 
and infinitive only. Thus we say, nXio), TtXeofiev, aad not 
7tXgj } nXov[i£V. 



140 CONTRACTED VERBS. 



J § § 



» x e *§> vo s -a ^ ^o 

s; ' • : * i— 



•3 c o '3 © © 

Q g o~ o v 2 v ©\g* 

q -a^vo © *? ? 



*<3 


H 


•S 


< 




Q 


s 


5 


e 

© 


fc 


o 


7 


v 


w 


5» 


o 
o 


!• 


t> 


g 


H 


(5 





§ fa s < 



q 



c;,s?,Sf 

,« c; o; c; 
| -Si J 

«3* »3 '3 



ill 



& 



3 3~ s ? 



131 Ml xJi 



CONTRACTED VERBS. 141 

•S'S'S^ *3<3«3 ,i'|'| 

~ ,. . ~ . ~ Q3V>^trt 

? v ? ^ ' ? - III 



*s S S O 2 jf *5\S? 

g vB vgj vo § V Q v w v o 

4— s — - 



S 



> - gig w& 



H 



t- •©» *< 



S - - ■ B E << g 



r^§ 



'3- © S 



g" . i . 



w P <3 

S to to 

«3 o o 

Ph I § § 



•3- © © *3 '3 '3 

3. € i~ . ~ s" 

SS^? s 33 v ? 



i 



142 



CONTRACTED VERBS. 



J.IJ 



N 3 o o 



^ ^ 




^ V §; 



i: 






i-r: 



*3 "o o 
. „ v cT 

NO VO "=» 

« V 6 






CONTRACTED VERBS. 143 



<£'S »§ «a"V<3~ 



' ■ ' .3 

8~ ft* 



2 o V S 



•3- © o 

vS .? vS 



§■ s? ? 



I- S o «.3^3 ^3* 

; V S ^S v 3 ^3~ v 3~ 







v3"TS v o S3^3 S3 




o « fc y t o 

£-©->< I- "©-X 






pi. , ; I || 



•■3 o o 



H T- *| SL 

!> ^ 8. a_^o- 



8 8-S 
•8 'S o 



H 









.3" '3 »3 



144 REMARKS ON VERBS. 

REMARKS ON VERBS IN (o. 
Active Voice. 

1. In the third person plural of the imperative, in Attic, 
the termination -ovrcov is more usual than -eroxrav. The 
former occurs even in the Ionic writers ; as, //. 8, 517, 
ayyeXXovTtdv ; Od. 1, 340, mvovrcdv. The form -erooav, 
however, is found in the older Attics occasionally ; as, 
Thucyd. 1, 34, iiadiroaav ; Plat. Leg. 6, p. 759, D., (bepi- 

TGHJaV. 

2. The form in ovtcjv was also used by the Dorians. 
Some Doric tribes omitted the v ; as, ttolovvtg), a-nooreiXav- 
t(o ; whence the Latin imperative in the third person plural, 
amantOy docento. 

3. The optative in oifit, particularly in the contracted 
verbs, has also in Attic the termination -oir\v ; as, ttoloit^v, 
(f)tXoi7]v, diepo)TG)7]v, &c. This form oltjv is also found 
in Ionic and Doric writers. The termination in -oltjv oc- 
curs less frequently in the barytone verbs than in the con- 
tracted ones ; yet still we have, in Attic, dia6aXotr)v, <f>a- 
voirjv, ttsttolOoltj, &c. 

4. In some perfects in -r\K,a the Ionians rejected the let- 
ters 7]K in the dual and plural, not, however, in the singu- 
lar ; as, redvarov, redva/iev, teOvclte, redvdai. Besides 
Tedvrjica and earrjfca, the form (3s6r}fca is also syncopated 
in this way by the Attic writers ; as, (3e6afiev, fiebaoi, &c. 

5. The primitive form of the pluperfect, which occurs in 
Homer and Herodotus, was -ea, in the third person -ee - T 
as, eyeyovse, a7ro6E6r]K££. Hence arose, on the one hand, 
the Doric form -Eta ; as, ovvayayoxeia, and, on the other, by 
contraction, the Attic form -r\ in the first person ; as, $(%. 

0. Instead of the termination -eigclv for the pluperfect, 
the form egclv is almost universal in Ionic and Attic ; as, 
aKTfKOECfav, kyEyovEoav. 

7. Instead of the fonn -ocfit, in the first aorist of the op- 
tative, the Attics chiefly use the primitive JEolic form -cm, 
-stag, -ele, after the example of the Ionians and Dorians, 
but only in the second and third persons singular and third 
person plural. 



REMARKS ON VERBS. 145 



Passive Voice. 

1. In the perfect optative the i is subscribed under the r\ 
or G) ; as, TETL/i'dixTjv, rerifiijo, TSTLfirJTo, &c. Instead of 
Heiiv%iii7}v, rcsiCTifjijirjv, &c, there was another form with oj. 
It seems, therefore, as if to the roots fiefivrj-, kektt]-, the 
form of the optative present had been appended, \le\ivt\oito, 
kekttjoito, whence came fMEfiviuTO and kektemto, con- 
tracted [is/jlvg)to. So {i£{ivow (fxsfivtio) is found in Xen. 
Anab. I, 7, 5. 

2. The perfect subjunctive is exactly like the present of 
the same mood, -GJ[iai, -%j, -rjrai ; as, 7T£</>£A<J5^at, 7re0iA^, 
r nE^iXr\rai. But it seldom occurs, and, instead of it, the 
circumlocution TTEcpiXrjfiEvog & is used. 

3. In the third person plural of the perfect and pluper- 
fect, the Ionians and Dorians change the v before rat and 
to into a, in which case the original aspirated consonant 
again enters before the a ; as, reOd^arai, from riQa\i\iai 
(i?a7rrG)), for redafifievoi eioi ; tcEKpixparac, from KEKpvfifiai 
(fcpvnTG)), for KSKpvfifievoi sloi. So, also, narsLXixaro for 
KWTEiXiy\iivoi Tjaav ; eoeo&xclto for GEoay\iEVot rjoav. 

4. If a c, arising from the Unguals d, 6, r, £, precedes 
the termination of the perfect passive -fiat, -oat, -rat, it is 
changed into 6 before the termination -drat, -aro. Thus, 
EGKEvddaro for EGKEvaafisvoi r/aav, from Gtcsvd^G) ; eotoXl- 
Saro for eotqXio\levoi fjaav, from oroXL^u).- 

5. In a similar way, the termination -avrai of the per- 
fect is changed into -iarai ; as, dvaTTEirrEarat for dvanErr- 
ravrai ; ETTEnEipEaro for EirEnEipavro. 

6. In the same way v, in the third person of the present 
and aorist, optative passive and middle, of the imperfect 
passive and middle, and even of the present, in some 
words, is changed into a. In the optative this is very 
frequent, even in the Attic poets ; as, irEvdolaro, dnocfiEpoi- 
aro, alodavoiaro, for ttevOolvto, &c. In the imperfect we 
find ETTEipuaro for ETTEipoJvro ; in the second aorist, dmics- 
aro for dixiKovro ; dtE^BapEaro for 6i£(f)ddpovTo. In the 
present we have, in Herodotus, fisarai, dvvsarat. 

N 



146 DIALECTS OF VERBS, 

DIALECTS OF VERBS IN 0). 

Active. 

1. In the old Homeric language, and generally in the 
Ionic and Doric dialects, the termination okov is annexed 
to the historical tenses of the indicative active, passive, 
and middle. In barytones, and those whose characteristic 
is e, el, or 7), this termination succeeds e in the imperfect 
and second aorist ; as, Trefnreaice for eixe\it:e ; (pdveofcr] for 
€<pdv?]. Where two e's come together, one is often re- 
jected ; as, ixuXegketo for ettcjXesto ; fcaXsoKETO for eaa- 
Xeero. If a is the radical vowel, then a comes before the 
termination; as, eaaaeg for slag; avdrjeaaice for avdrjoe. 
These forms are never mere imperfects or aorists, but have 
always the force of an action repeated in past time. The 
frequentatives in gkg) are probably derived from this source. 
The augment is usually, but not always, wanting. 

2. The termination stg (second person singular present) 
and elv (infinitive) were, in Doric, sometimes Eg and ev re- 
spectively ; as, ovpiodsg for cvpi&ig ; ovplodsv for ovpi- 
£siv. 

3. In verbs pure in do) the JEolians pronounced sep- 
arately the i subscribed in the second and third persons 
singular of the present ; as, (3od'ig, ysXdi, for (3oag, ysXa. 

4. The Dorians make the first person plural of all tenses 
end in p,sg instead of \lev ; as, Epiodo\iEg for Epl^ofisv ; ddc- 
tcovfjLEg for aStKOVjiEV ; dEdoifcafjiEg for dEdoiicap,£v. 

5. The third person plural in -ac ends in Doric in -n ; 
and before this final syllable, instead of the long vowel or 
diphthong in the barytones, the short vowel with v is placed, 
in a manner analogous to the dative plural of the third de- 
clension, and to the participles in ag ; as, dvaixXEKovn for 
dvanXsKovoi ; fioxd^ovrt for \io%Bi^ovai. From this ter- 
mination comes the Latin termination in nt. In the com- 
mon dialect, and afterward in the Alexandrian, from -avrt, 
in the perfect arose the termination -av ; as, sopyav, 7TE&- 

pLKCLV. 

6. In Doric, particularly, verbs pure in aw have, after 
contraction, zj for a ; as, (poir^g for cpoirag. The Attics 
retain this in the verbs £do), nEivdb), diipdo), and %pdo\iai. 
In the imperfect the Dorians contract as, not into a, but into 
f? ; as, kfyoirri) krpvTrr[. 



DIALECTS OF VERBS. 147 

7. The termination ov of the third person plural of the 
imperfect and second aorist was in some of the common 
dialects -ocav, and remained also in the Alexandrian dia- 
lect ; as, Eox&^ooav \ This is particularly the case in the 
Greek version of the Old Testament, and also in the New. 

8. The second person in -7]g, both in the subjunctive and 
indicative, was often lengthened in the old language by the 
addition of the syllable 6a, which has remained in the * 
iEolic, Doric, Ionic, and in some words in the Attic dialect. 
Thus we find EdsXyjoda for edeXqg. In Attic, 7}o6a for r\g ; 
ecprjada for e<pr)g ; oloOa for oldag. 

9. The third person singular of the subjunctive in Ionic 
received the addition of the syllable oi ; as, eX6iqoi for sX- 
6xi ; X&6x}OL for Xady, <fec. This ai the Dorians changed 
into ri ; as, edsXyrt. 

10. In the old poets, the subjunctive active, if the penult 
be long, has, for the most part, in the first and second per- 
sons plural, the short vowel instead of the long one, name- 
ly, o for w. Thus we have, 77. 2, 72, ^oprj^ofisv ; Od. 15, 
297, epv^ofiev ; 11.21, 443, dnoXvao^ev, &c. These must 
not be mistaken for futures. 

11. In the infinitive, instead of the form elv and elv, the 
termination fievat, and shortened \lev, was frequently used 
in the old language, as, for example, by Homer and He- 
siod, and in the iEolic and Doric dialects. Thus. eX6e[ie- 
vai and eX6e\lev for eX6elv ; r niVE\xEvai for tt'lvelv ; ovrd- 
\iev for ovrav, &c. 

12. Hence, from such a form as tvkte\lev, we obtain, 
by syncope, the Ionic tvttteev, and from this latter, by era- 
sis, the Attic tvtttslv. From tvttteev comes also, by con- 
traction, the Doric tvtxtev. 

13. In the participle, the Dorians used in the feminine, 
instead of ovoa, the form oioa, not only in the present, as, 
naxXa^oioa, E^pioa, but also in the second aorist ; as, Xa- 
doloa, Xnxoloa. They employed also the form Evoa in 
verbs pure for sovoa ; as, ^arEvoai for ^Tovoai ; ysXsvoa 
for ysXtioa, &c. The iEolians and some Dorians used 
for the circumflexed ovoa the form doa ; as, XinGJoat. 
Hence arose the Laconian form CJa ; as, Traiddoydv for irat- 
^ovodv. 

14. The iEolians formed the termination of the partici- 
ples -oh> and (ov in etc, because they formed the verbs in 
eg) and do) in 7]\ii ; thus they said, opstg, OT0i%Eig, from 

OpTjfM, OTOLXqiM' 



248 DIALECTS OF VERBS. 

15. The termination of the first aorist active, ag, aaa, 
av, was, in Doric, acg, aioa ; as, ravvoaic;, plipaig, reXe- 
oaig, &lc. 

16. Instead of oxrav in the third person plural of the im- 
perative, the termination ov was very much used in Ionic, 
Doric, and particularly Attic ; as, e7reo6u)v, XegdoOov, fia- 
XeoOov, &c. 



1. In verbs pure an e is inserted before sat, which the 
Ionic prose writers preserve unchanged ; as, diatpeecu, <po- 
desai. 

2. The termination eo, which in the Attic dialect was 
contracted into ov, is in Doric, and sometimes in Ionic, 
contracted into sv ; as, enXev, \id%ev, etceXev. 

3. Instead of the termination of the first person plural in 
{isda, the iEolians said fiedev ; as, rvTrrdfieOev. 

4. Instead of r\v in the first person singular of the second 
aorist, av is found ; as, ervnav, Tkeocr. 4, 53. In the first 
person plural of the aorists the Dorians said rjpsg for Tjfiev ; 
as, eicXlvd^fisg. 

5. In the third person plural of the aorists the iEolians 
and Dorians said ev for r\aav ; as was the case, also, in the 
old Ionic. Thus we have kfyiXrfiev, 11. 2, 668 ; fydvev, 
Pind. 01. 10, 101. 

6. The infinitive of the aorists is in Doric -rjfiev for -rjvai, 
abbreviated from the old form in -rjfxevai, which form is fre- 
quent, particularly in Homer ; as, doiQ\i7\di]\LZvai, II. 2, 
124; 6[ioi,G)df]iievai, II. 1, 187. 

Middle. 

1. The form ao of the second person, first aorist middle, 
occurs frequently in the Ionic and Doric writers ; as, 11. 5, 
88, syelvao; Theocrit. 29, 18, edrjtcao. 

2. Hence arose, in the Syracusan dialect, the form -a, 
the o being omitted ; as, cpvoavreg for (pvadovreg, Theocr. 
4, 28. 

3. In the third person of the optative, first aorist middle, 
-ataro for -aivro is very frequent in the Ionic and Attie 
poets ; as, Od. 1, 164, dpr\aaiaro\ Herod. 3, 75, avatcrrj- 
oaiaro ; JEschyl. Pers. 360, knobdoaiaTO, <fec. 



^\ **"% -^*% 

VERBS. 149 

VERBS IN pi, 

1. Verbs in \ii are formed from verbs of the third conju- 
gation in aw, eo), 6(o, and vcj, 

1. By prefixing the reduplication with T. 

2. By changing o) into /u. 

3. By lengthening the penult. 

2. In this way are formed the following : 

lGT7]fJ,l, from GT&G). 

Tldlftll, 1 " -&ECJ. 

didcjfii, " 66g). 

deiKvvjAi, " deifcvvo). 

3. If the verb begin with a vowel, with ttt or or, then 
t aspirated is alone prefixed ; as, so), lr\\ii ; ttt&g), Itxt7]\ii. 
This is called the Improper Reduplication. 

4. The reduplication takes place in the present and im- 
perfect merely. 

5. Verbs in v\li have no reduplication ; neither is it found 
in those verbs in \ii which are formed from verbs of three 
syllables ; as, fcpefivdo), tipi\ivr\\xi. It is also wanting in 
^>7\\ii from (pad). 

6. Verbs in \u have only three tenses of that form, name- 
ly, the present, imperfect, and second aorist. They take 
the other tenses from verbs in w. Thus, dldojpi makes <5g3- 
(70) and deSoica from doo. 

7. Verbs in v\ii have no second aorist, nor the optative 
or subjunctive mood. When these moods are needed they 
are borrowed from forms in vg). 

8. Verbs in \ii have no second future, second aorist pas 
sive, nor perfect middle. 

1. Old form didr/fiL, changed to Tidrjfii, in order to prevent an aspi* 
rate from beginning two successive syllables. 
N2 



150 



ACTIVE VOICE. 
Moods and Tenses. 



Indie. 


Imper. 


Opt. 


Subj. 


Jnfin. 


Part. 


rid-rifii, 
did-ofii, 
Seikv-vui, 


-adt, 

-ETl, 
-06l, 

-vdi, 


-avqv, 
-siqv, 

-OlTjV, 


-c5, 
-Q, 


-dvai, 
-svai, 
-ovai, 

-vvat, 


-ag, 
-tig, 
-ovg, 

-vg. 


'iGTTJV, 

krWrjv, 
kdlduv, 
hdeinvw, 


> The rest like the present. 


£OT7jV, 
E07JV, 

eSuv, 


gttjQi, | crairiv, 

■&££, -&EL7JV, 

dog, 1 doirjv, 


GT&, 

■&&, 

do, 


GTijvat, 
"&£ivai, 
dovvai, 


crag, 
■&sig, 
dovg. 



Present, 

Imperfect, 
2d Aorist, 



The other tenses are regularly formed from verbs in <o 
Thus : 



1st Future 



1st Aorist, 



Perfect, 



Indie. 


Imper. 


Opt. 


Subj. 


Infin. 


Part. 


GTTjG-O, 

"&fjG-o, 
duG-o, 
Sei^-o), 

EGrrjGa, 
edrjua, 
sduica, 
Mel^cc, 

iGTTlK-a, 
TE0ELK-a, 

6e.8uK.-a, 
dedsix-a, 


GTfJG-OV, 

6eX^-ov, 

-E, 
-£, 

-£> 

-e, 


-Olfll, 
-Olfll, 
-Olfll, 
-Olfll, 

-aifii, 
-aifii, 

-Olfll, 
-Olfll, 
-Olfll, 
-Olfll, 


-«, 

-w, 

-u, 
-u, 
-Id, 
-u, 


-ElV, 
-ElV, 
-ElV, 
•ElV, 

-at, 

-at, 

-ivai, 
-evai, 
-ivat, 
-hai, 


-UV, 
-idV, 
-UV, 
-(OV. 

-ag, 

-ag. 

-6g, 
-ug, 
-6g, 
-6g. 



Pluperfect. 
Igttjkeiv or EiGrriKEiv, eteOeikeiv, e6e66keiv, kdeSelxeiv. 





Numbers and Persons. 








Present. 






Singular 




Dual. 


Plural. 




Igt-vui, vg, 


7JGI, 


arov, arov, 


afiev, are, 


aai, 


nd-vfii, yg, 


7JGI, 


ETOv, erov, 


EflEV, ETE, 


tiai, 


SiS-ofii, ug, 


UOl, 


otov, orov, 


OflEV, OTE, 


OVGl, 


duKV-Vfii, vg, 


VOL 


vrov, vrov. 


v/iev, VT£, 


VOL 



151 



lor-nv, 
krW-nv, 
kdid-ov, 
kdeiKV-vv, 




Singular. 


lar-nv, 
e6-7jv, 

id-uv, 


CJf, 



Imperfect. 

Dual, 
arov, aTTjv, 

etov, ettjv, 

OTOV, 0T7]V, 

vtov, vt7jv, 

Second Aorist. 
Dual. 

7JT0V, 7]T7]V, 

erov, errjv, 

otov, orrjv, 



Plural, 

afiev, are, affav, 

EfiEv, ets, ecav, 

ofisv, ore, ocavj 

v[iev, vte, vaav. 



Plural. 

TjjJLEV, 7JTE, 7]cav t 

Efiev, ete, eoav, 

o/iEv, ore, ocav. 



Singular, 
lard-di, > 
rids-ri, f 
6ido-0i, C rcJ} 
6eIkvv-6l, J 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

Dual. 



TOV, 



TG)V, 



Plural. 

TS, TQOCIV. 



GT7J-6t, GTTjTOy 

6e<;, 6eto), 

66c, dorcd, 



Second Aorist. 

Dual. 

ct7jt0v, gtijtov, 
Oetov, 6etov, 
Sotov, dortov, 



Plural. 

CT7JTE, GTfjTUOaV, 

Oete, Qkrucav, 
Sore, doTuoav. 



Singular, 
larai-nv, \ 
Tidsi-nv, > 7]£, Tf 
dtdoi-flv, ) 



Singular, 
arai-nv, i 
6ec-7]v, > 7jg } ijj 
ioi-nvy ) 



OPTATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 
Dual. Plural. 

npev, vte, ncav, and 



Second Aorist. 
Dual. 



Plural, 
qfiev, Tjre, Tjcav, and 



152 



Singular, 

lar-ti, yg, y, 

rid-ti, yg, y, 

6i8-£), dg, <p, 



aru, orris, cry, 
6u, 6yg, 6y, 
6a, d&g, (5aj, 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present. 

Dual. 



yrov, 
fjrov, 
€>rov, 



rjrov, 
fjrov, 
tirov, 



Plural. 

&fiev, 7}re y (iai t 

tifiEv, rjre, tiac t 

tifiev, wre, €>ai. 



Plural, 



Second Aorist. 

Dual. 

arrjrov, arrjrov, I arti/iEV, arf)rs, aru>oi t 
drjrov, drjrov, d&fiEV, dfjrs, 6&ai, 

d&rov, durov, \ dtifxev, dure, dual. 



lardvai. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

Tcdevai. didovai. 



SecKvvvat. 







Second Aorist. 




cravat. 


■&eivai. 


Sovvai. 






PARTICIPLES. 






Present. Second Aorist. 


lar-dg, 
rid-dq, 
did-ovg, 
deinv-vg, 


aaa, 
elaa, 
ovaa, 
vaa, 


dv, ardg t 
ev, &eig, 
6v, dovg, 

vv. 1 

PASSIVE VOICE. 
The Moods and Tenses. 


ardaa, ardv, 
■&siaa, tier, 
dovaa, 66v. 



Present. 



Imperfect, 



4 



Indie. 


Imp. | Opt. 


Subj. 


Inf. 


Part. 


lar-a/xai, 
rld-Efiai, 
did-o/j,ai, > 
deiKV-vfiai, 


-aao, 

-EGO, 

-oao, 

-vao, 


-at,fj,r]v, 
-Eifir/v, 
-oifzrjv, 


-ufxai, 
-Qjuai, 
-u>/uai, 


-aadai, 
-sodai, 
-oadai, 
-vadai, 


-ajuevog, 

-EfJLEVOg, 

-6/j.Evog, 
-vfisvog. 


lard/irjv, 
kride/urjv, 
k6t.66fi.7jv, 

k6eiK.VUfJ.7JV, 


\ The rest like the present. 






153 



Tenses formed from Verbs in G). 



Perfect, 



Plup., 



3d Fut. 



■I 



1st Fut. 



Indie. 


Imp. 


Opt. 1 Subj. 


Iafin. 


Part. 


'iGT-auai, 
red-etfiai, 
Ssd-ofiac, 
6e6-etyjiai, 


-aao, 
-eiao, 
-ogo, 


-aifinv, 
-eijjLTjv, 

-0L[M7]V, 




-UGdai, 

-eiGOac, 
-6g8cu, 
-elxOcLt, 


-afiEvog, 

-ElfXEVOg, 

-Ojievog, 

-£CJfl£V0g. 


eara[j,7jv, 
kreQel[ir]v, 

£6e66/27]V, 

£deSeljfj.T}v, 


\ The rest like the perfect. 


earcKJ-ofiat, 
Tedei(j-Ofj.cu, 
dedoG-Oftcu, 

EGrddnv, 

kredriv, 

kdodrjv, 

kSeixOvv, 




-oifcrjv, 

-0i/J,7jV, 

-oifirjv, 




-ecdat, 
-£G0at, 

-EGdat, 


-6/u.evog, 

-OflEVOg, 

-6/u.Evog. 


Grdd-7]Ti, 

teQ-wtl, 

666-rjTL, 


-eirjv, 

-£L7]V, 

-eirjv, 




-7JVO.L, 

-fjvai, 
deixQ-ijvaL, 


-£tg, 
-£ig, 
-eig, 

-£cg. 


aradrja-Ofiat, 
redr/c-ofiac, 
Sodrjo-ojiaL, 
6eLx67JG-ofiai, 




-OLfllJV, 

-oifcrjv, 

-0i/J,7]V, 




-£G0ai, 
-ecdai, 
-£G0ai, 
-£G0at, 


-o/iEvog, 
-oftsvog, 
-ofi£vog, 
-ofi£vog. 



Singular, 
lora- 

UKVV- 



ride- ( 
dido- C ' 

Sukvv- J 



Numbers and Persons. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

Dual. 

:6ov, odov, cdov, 



- ( 

kdeiKVV- / 



kdido- 



Imperfect. 
Dual. 

finv, go, to, [ieBov, gQov, oBnv, 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 
Singular. Dual. 



iora- 



6l6o- 
deinvv- 



g6u, 



cdov, gOuv, 



Plural, 
fieda, c6e, vtch. 

Plural, 
fieda, ode, vto. 

Plural, 
ode, cduaav, 



154 





OPTATIVE MOOD. 






Present. 






Singular. Dual, 
larai- ) 

ridei- > finv, o, to, jxeOov, cdov, advv, 
didol- ) J j 


Plural, 
fjeda, ode, 


VTO. 


SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 






Present. 






Singular, 
lar-ufjac, ?j, yrai, 
Tid-tifiat, ri, yTCu, 
did-tifiat, &, or at, 


Dual. 
6/xeOov, jjodov, fjaOov, 1 
oiieQov, ijadov, jjadov, 
6)[xe6ov, ogOov, uadov, \ 


Plural. 
G)/j.eda, fjads, 
uusda, ijade, 
ujiEda, ucOe, 


iovraif 
tivrai, 
tivrai. 


INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. 




Present. 
loTaodai, 
rideadaL, 
didoadai, 
deinvvcdai. 




Present. 
IcrdfJEV-oc, x 
tiQeijev-oc, f 
dt66/j.Ev-oc, I 
6elkvvuev-oc, y 


ov. 



MIDDLE VOICE. 

The Moods and Tenses. 

The present and imperfect are the same as in the pas- 
sive. 

The Second Aorist. 



? Indie ] Imp. 


Opt. 


Subj. 


taTu.fj.nv, 1 crdoo, 

kd£/J.T]V, -&ECO, 

kddfinv, j doco, 


OTaifivv, 

■&£LfJT]V, 

doifiTjv, 


GTOfjat, 

■d-ti/Liai, 
dufiai, 



1st Future, 



GTaaQai, 
■&Eo6ai, 
docdai, 



Tenses formed from Verbs in 0). 



Earnaufirjv, 

kdnKufirjv, 

kdoKa.fj.7jv, 

kdEL^UfJTjV, 

GTJ]G-Ofiai, 
■&T](T-0fiai, 

dua-ouai, 
deitj-oixai, 



arufisvoc, 

■&EUEVOC, 
66/JEVOC. 



arfia-ai, 


-alfirjv, 


-ofiat, 


-aadac, 


-a.fj.EVOC, 












dti^-ai, 

:: :i 


-aifvnv, 
* -oifivv, 


-U/J.CU, 


-acdat, 
-Ecdat, 


-aflEVOQ. 

-Ofuevog, 



VERB. 



155 



Numbers and Persons.^ 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Second Aokist. 



kara- 

m- 

k66- 


Singular r 

> [IT)V, GO, TO, 


Dual, 
[isdov, gOov, gOvv, 


Plural, 
fieda, g8s, vto. 




IMPERATIVE MOOD 






Second Aorist. 






Singular. Dual. 


Plural. 


ord' 
66- 


£ go, g8o), g6ov, g6uv, 

OPTATIVE MOOD. 
Second Aorist. 


g6e, gOogov, 




Singular. Dual. 


Plural. 


OTCU- 

■&ei- 
6oi- 


> unv, o, to, 


jiedov, cdov, cdrjv, 


[ieda, g6e, vto. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Second Aorist. 



Singular. 



Plural. 



GT-u(iai, 7}, yTai, 1 o)/j,e8ov, fjodov, rjadov, \ 6ue6a, 7jg6e, uvrai, 
&-wuai, rf, rjTat, 6ue6iv, tjgOov, 7)g6ov, 6ueda, 7]gQe, uvTat, 
6-fiuat, G>, C)Tai, \ 6fie6ov } cogOov, ugOov, j uiieda, ugOe, uvTai. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Second Aorist. 

OTUodai, 

■&eGdai, 
doodai. 



66- 



PARTICIPLE. 
Second Aorist. 

/xEvog, fiivn, fisvov. 



156 REMARKS ON VERBS. 

FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

The Imperfect 
is formed from the present by prefixing the augment and 
changing \ii into v ; as, rld?]fii, kridr\v. 

The Second Aorist 
is formed from the imperfect by dropping the reduplication ; 
as, sridrjv, sdrjv ; or by changing the improper reduplication 
into the augment ; as, cgttjv, eottjv. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

The Present 
is formed from the present active by shortening the penult 
and changing \ii into \iai ; as, loTTjfU, iord[iac. 

The Imperfect 
is formed from the present by prefixing the augment and 
changing \iai into \ur\v ; as, rldejiai, etlQe\i7\v. 

MIDDLE VOICE. 

The Second Aorist 

is formed from the imperfect by dropping the reduplication ; 
as, ende^irjv, edefirjv ; lard[i7]v, k,Grd\x7\v, 

REMARKS ON VERBS IN \u. 

1 . The number of verbs in \ii, in the Attic and common 
dialects, is very small, and among these few are only four 
which have a complete conjugation peculiar to themselves, 
namely, tl6?]jil, lr\\ii, lgttjiil, and dcdofii. 

2. These verbs were chiefly used in the iEolo-Doric 
dialect ; and in the writers of that dialect verbs very fre- 
quently occur in the form f.u, which in other dialects termi- 
nate in da), eg) ; as, vifCTjfii, (poprjfic, for vlkug), (popid). 

3. These forms in [u are to be regarded as among the 



REMARKS ON VERBS. 157 

oldest in the language, and occur frequently in the poems 
of Homer and Hesiod. After the dialects arose, the Ionic 
and Attic retained some of these verbs, namely, those above 
given (§ 1) and those in v(ii, instead of which they very 
seldom use the forms in vo). The iEolic, however, which 
retained the most of the ancient language, continued to use 
the greater part of them. 

4. Historically considered, then, the verb in \li must have 
been at least as old as those in co, and of more extensive 
use than appears in the works which have come down 
to us. 

5. The first aorists in ica, of verbs in fit, are thought to 
have been originally perfects, and to have been subsequent- 
ly used as aorists, when a peculiar form was introduced for 
the perfect. 

6. The aorists in rca have not the rest of the moods after 
the indicative ; and, therefore, in giving the moods and 
tenses, we cannot say ed^aa, -&rjicov, tirjitaLiii, &lc, but must 
pass to the second aorist ; as, edrjfca, $£c, -&ei7]v, &c. 

7. In Ionic and Doric the forms eo), aw, 6(o, often occur 
in the present and imperfect singular, with the reduplication ; 
as, rcOeig, eiUTidelg, dtdolg, edidovg, &c. 

8. In the third person plural the form act is used by the 
Attics, which occurs also frequently in Ionic, and hence is 
called Ionic ; as, rtdedGL, didoaot, &c. 

9. The first aorist in tea occurs in good writers almost 
exclusively in the singular and in the third person plural. 
In the rest of the persons the second aorist is more used, 
which, again, hardly ever occurs in the singular. 

10. The optative present and second aorist, as in the 
aorist passive of verbs in o), have in the plural, in the 
poets as well as prose writers, more commonly elfxsv, sire, 
fXev ; alfiev, aire, alsv ; olfxev, olre, olev ; instead of elrjfiev, 
elrjre, &c. 

11. In the verb iGr^fic, the perfect, pluperfect, and sec- 
ond aorist have an intransitive meaning, " to stand ;" the 
rest of the tenses a transitive one, " to place." Thus, ea- 
rrjfca signifies " / stand ;" elorrjfceiv, " / was standing." 
But earrjv, " J stood" as a transient action. 

12. The form tar ana, which is found in the common 
grammars, occurs in later writers only, and in a transitive 
sense, " / have placed." The Doric form eardfea^ with the 
long penult, is distinct from this. 

O 



158 IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS IN fit 
may be divided into three classes, each containing three 
verbs. 

I . From eo) are derived el\ii, to be ; ti\ii and lr\\ii, to go. 

II. From £G) are derived lt][u, to send ; r\\iai, to sit ; elficu, 
to clothe one's self. 

III. Kelpai, to lie down ; lor\\ii, to know ; (})7j[il, to say. 

CLASS I. 

1. "Eifii, to be, 

has been before conjugated, as it is used in some of its tenses 
as an auxiliary to the passive voice of verbs in G). 

2. Efyii, to go. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

Singular. Dual. Plural, 

ei/ii, elg or el, elai. itov, itov. 



ifiev, ire, ecai, mji ox 
laai. 



Imperfect. 
qeiv, Tjeig, fiei. J tjeItov, qeirnv. J tfeifiev, tjeite, fjEioav. 

Future, elau. . First Aorist, ilea. Perfect, shea. 

Pluperfect. 

IK-EIV, Eig, El. | EITOV, EIT7JV. J El\lEV, SITE, ELCaV. 

Second Aorist. 

10V, iff, IE. LETOV, UtTJV. j lOflEV, IETS, COV, 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

id i or eI, Ira. J lrov,~ Itov. Its, Iraaav. 

Second Aorist. 
le, Ietq. I lerov, Utov. hre, leroaav 



IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 159 

OPTATIVE MOOD. 

Second Aorist. 
Singular. Dual. Plural. 

loi/U, lOig, LOL. j COLTOVy LOLTTJV. \ lOLflSV, lOLTS, LOLSV. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Second Aorist. 

lo), lye, lij. | Itjtov, It]tov. | lufiev, tyre, loot. 

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. 

Present. Second Aorist. 

levai. iuv, iovaa, lov. 

REMARKS. 

1. The Attics regularly use the present tense of u\u in 
a future sense, " / will go." This usage occurs also in 
Ionic. The form eioojiai, occurs in Attic only as the future 
of olda. 

2. The form si is more used in Attic than elg. Homer 
has also slada, II. 10, 450, &c. 

3. In the imperative, the form 18 1 is more used than el. 
For LTGioav we have occasionally, in Attic, ltcjv. 

4. The imperfect jjeiv is nothing more than the form elv 
with 7] as a prefix, analogous to which are the forms rjet- 
deiv and r\iov. The form rj'ia, Attic §a, also occurs, and is 
erroneously regarded by some as the perfect middle, just 
as r\ELv is sometimes miscalled the pluperfect middle. The 
best grammarians regard rj'ia as merely an Ionic form for 
ijeiv ; just as in ridrjfii, the Ionic eridea is the same as 
eridrjv ; and in el\ii, I am, the Ionic rja is the same as r\v. 

5. The form rja never has the signification of the perfect, 
and rjecv never that of the pluperfect ; but both forms agree 
in this respect, and designate generally a time past, either 
absolutely, or with reference to another time ; that is, they 
stand for the aorist and imperfect. 

6. From what has "been said respecting rjeiv, it will be 
seen at once how erroneous it is to subscribe the i under 
the r\. This mistake arose from the tense in question 
being regarded as a pluperfect, and deduced from r^a. In 



160 IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

%ia the subscript i is correct, since this form is contracted 
from ijia. 

7. We have called Icjv the second aorist participle, 
since it follows the analogy of the aorist participle in hav- 
ing the accent on the ending. Others make it a present 
participle. 

3. "lrj[jLi, to go. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 

Ijjfii, lrj£, Irja. hrov, lerov. J lefiev, iere, hlci. 

Imperfect. 

■ lecav. 

OPTATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 
lecTj. 

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. 

Present. Present. 

Uvai. lets, Uvtoq. 

MIDDLE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 

Xe-fiai^ cat, rai. \ [xsdov, cBov, cBov. \ [ieBa, cBe, vrat. 

Imperfect. 
ie-finv, oo, to. | /xedov, cdov, cBtjv. \ peSa, cde } vio. 

IMPERATIVE. PARTICIPLE. 

Present. Present. 

hco, lecBa. iipev-oe, q, ov. 

INFINITIVE. 

Ucdai. 



IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



161 



CLASS II. 

1. "lr^i, to send. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 





Present. 




Singular. 
Inpi, Ing, Itjgi. 


Dual, 
lerov, Ibtov. 

Imperfect. 


Plural, 
lefiev, lere, ielai. 


Inv, Ing, In. 


J lerov, lernv. \ 
First Future. 


le/xev, lere, leaav, 


$<7-w, eig, el. 


erov, erov. 


o/zev, ere, ova. 


First Aorist. 


Perfect. 


Pluperfect. 


qua. 


ElKd. 

Second Aorist. 


eltcetv. 


ijv, t)g, 7}. 


erov, ernv. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 


e"/iev, Ire, iaav. 


Ie9i, leru. 


lerov, lercov. 
Second Aorist. 


lere, leruaav. 


Ig, tru. 


erov, IridV. 

OPTATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 


ere, eruaav. 


Ui-nv, ng, n. 


nrov, jjrnv. 


npev, rjre, noav. 


First Future. 


Perfect. 


%COl{J,l. 


1 
Second Aorist. 


ElKOlflL. 


el-nv, ng, n. 


nrov, 7]rnv. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 

Present. 


nfiev, nre, naav. 


lu, lys, ly- 


J ifirov, Ifjrov. J 
02 


lujiev, Itjte, luau 



162 



IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



Singular. 
bIk-u, 7?f, 77. 



fa 



Perfect. 
Dual. 

tjtov, tjtov. 

Second Aorist. 
tjtov, tjtov. 



Plural. 

UflEV, TJTE, 



lets, 



Present. 
Isvai, 

Perfect. 

e'tKsvai. 

Present. 
ulca, 

Perfect. 



I TjTOV, TjTOV. I UflEV, TJTE, 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

First Future. 

TJCEIV. 

Second Aorist. 
elvai. 

PARTICIPLES. 

First Future. 
fjcov, rjcovca, rjcov. 

Second Aorist. 

elca, hv. 



eltcoe, eltcvia, etKog. eZc, 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 

Dual. 
iv, cdov, cdov. J 



Singular, 
le-fiat, cat, Tat. J 



Plural. 
6a, cde, 



ie-pijv. 



i-fiat, 



TO. J 



CO, 



l-fl7]Vu 

P. P. Future. 
eIcojiou 



TO, 



Imperfect. 
sdov, cdov, cdrjv. J jusda, cde, vto. 

Perfect. 
edov, cdov, cdov. \ fieda, cde, vrai. 

Pluperfect. 
edov, cdov, cdtjv. J fisda, cde, vto. 

First Aorist. First Future. 

edrjv and eldrjv. [ idqcoficu. 



IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



163 



MIDDLE VOICE. 

Present and imperfect like the Passive. 1 

First Aorist. 
Dual. 



Singular. 
jjK-afinv, u, aro. \ 

%o-oftai, el, erai. \ 

i(l7]V, 1(70, Iro. 



First Future. 
', eoBov, eodov. 

Second Aorist. 

'ifcedov, eoQov, eodrjv. 



etoo, 



elado. 



lao and ov, iodu. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD, 

Perfect. 
[ eladov, eIo6qv. 

Second Aorist. 
I 'ioQov, eadcov. 



7]GOC-/I7]V, 

el-urjv, 



(DfUU, 



OPTATIVE MOOD. 
First Future. 
to. \ fiedov, odov, cdrjv. 



TO, 



Second Aorist. 
fiedov, odov, oOjjv. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, 
Second Aorist. 
r/Tai. [ uLiedov, rjodov, tjoOov. 



Plural, 
d/usda, aods, avro. 

SfiEda, sode, ovrai. 

£/j,eda, Sods, Ivto. 

slode, slodaoav. 
fade, fodaoav. 

fieda, ode, vto. 
fieda, ode, vto. 

tifieda, qode, uvrat. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

First Future. Second Aorist. 

fjOEodai. lodai. 

PARTICIPLES. 
First Future. Second Aorist. 

TjOOflEV-OQ, TJ, OV. i[lEV-OQ, 7], OV. 

1. The middle form le/uai is used in the sense of " to hasten; 1 " lit- 
erally, 'to send one's self on." Hence arises the kindred meaning of 
" to desire ;" i. e., to send one's self after anything, in which sense it is 
the root of ifiepor, " desire" 



164 



IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



2. r Rficu, to sit. 1 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 

7}/iac } rjaai 7 rjrai. \ q/isdov, %cdcy, yodov. j rjfieda, tjcOe, %vtcu.* 

Imperfect. 

fjflTjVy TjCO, 7jTO. J riflEdoV, Tjodov, 7}<j67]V. j rjfieOa, fade, fivTO. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 
| 7jgBoVj %cdo>v. J 



fjcOe, qadaaav. 



INFINITIVE. 

Present. 
ijcdai. 



PARTICIPLE. 
Present. 

T][IEV-OSj 7], 01 



3. Efyzcw, to clothe one's self. 



Singular, 
elfiai, eluat, elrat, and 
Elarai. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

Dual 

I I 

Pluperfect. 



elfinv, elao, and 'iaco, ] 
elro, eIoto, Zeoto, and 
foro. 



kaa- 

kELC- 



First Aorist. 
> afirjv, «, aro. j dfiEdov, aadov, dcQnv. 



Plural. 
— elvrat. 



elvro. 



afiEda, acds, avro. 



1. This verb is considered, by many grammarians, as a perfect pas- 
sive from 'io, I set, being for elfiai, slaai, &c. The compound Kddrjfxat 
is more common than the simple verb. 

2. For rjvrai the Ionians used 'iarai, and for rjvro, in the pluperfect, 
faro ; for which the poets said Elarai and daro. 

3. The accent is on the antepenult, on account of the present signifi- 
cation. The true accentuation, if rjnevor be regarded as a perfect par- 
ticiple, is on the penult, ypivos. 



IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 165 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present and Perfect. First Aorist. 

elfievog. iaadftevoc. 

CLASS III. 
1. Kelpac, to lie down. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 

KeT-fiat, cat, rat. \ fiedov, adov, adov. \ fieda, ode, vrai. 

Imperfect. 
kitei-firfv, ao, to. \ fiedov, adov, adi]v. | fieda, ads, vro. 

First Future. 
Keia-o/iat, ec, erai. | ofiedov, eadov, eadov. \ Sueda, eade, ovrai. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

ksXco, Keiadu. | Keladov, neiodcov. I nelcde, tcetoducav. 

OPTATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 
Keoi-firjv, o, to. j fiedov, adov, cdrjv. j fieda, ade t vto. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present. First Aorist. 

Keufiai. netoofiai. 

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. 

Present. Present. 

Keladai. I nelfiev-oc, jj, ov. 



166 IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

2. "Igtj/jh., to know. 1 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 
Singular. Dual. Plural. 

. I ausv, are, and > ■> 

la-tyu, rjc, yci. arov, arov. r ' an( J ^ J aoL? 

Imperfect. 

, l I auev, are, aaav, and 

iG-qv, vg 7j. arov, arnv. I ~ ' ' ' 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

la-adt and 6i, dru and J arov and tov, arov 1 are and re, arcoacw, 
to. and tov. \ ruaav, and tuv. 

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. 

Present. Present. 

iadvai. laa-g, ca, v. 

MIDDLE VOICE. 3 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 

laa-fiai, cat, rat. J [zedov, cdov, adov. J fieOa, cde, vrat. 

Imperfect. 
icd-firjv, ca, to. J fzedov, adov, cdrjv. j fieda, cde, vto, 

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. 

Present. Present. 

Icacdai. icdfisv-og, 7], ov. 

1. The verb Icrjfxt. occurs in the singular only in Doric writers ; &% 
laafii, Theocrit. 5, 119. According to the grammarians, olda/nev, the 
first person plural of olda, was changed by the Ionic writers into Id/nev, 
which the Attics softened into iausv, and from this last was formed a 
new present, namely, the verb la^fzc. 
i 2. In common use, the dual and plural of the present tense alone oc- 
cur. For the singular olda is employed. Thus, olda, olada, olds ; dual, 
Ictov, iotov ; plural, Ic/iev, lore, icaci. 

3. The passive loauai is not in use. 



IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



167 



Singular, 



ty-TJV, 



<j>&TU. 



<j>al-7]v t 



<p7Jo-ai(u, aic, at,. 



i*z>> 0??» 



3. $r]fJ>i } to say. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 

Dual, 
(parov, (parov. 

Imperfect. 

arov, &tt]v. 



Plural. 
<pa[iev, (pare, <paaL 



| a/j,ev, are, aaav, and 
av. 



First Future. 
j erov, erov. \ o/xev, ere, ovou 

First Aorist. 

arov, arvv. \ a/xev, are, av. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 
fyarov, <pdruv. | fare, tpdrucav. 

OPTATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 

I V tov, r,mv. I ^ £V ' ^ i Gav > 

' ' ' | //ev, re, ev. 



First Aorist. 
atrov, aifqv. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present. 
| tyrjrov, <j>fjTov> | 



aijxevy aire, aiev. 



iouev, 



'TjrSf <f>uai, 



INFINITIVE. 

Present. 
<j>dvac. 

First Aorist. 
(pjjoau 



PARTICIPLES. 

Present. 

0af, <paca, <p& 

First Future. 

(pTJOOV. 



168 



IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



Second Aorist. 

(pfjVCU. 



First Aorist. 
fyrjoag. 



PASSIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE. IMPERATIVE. 

Perfect. Tcityafiai, — vre^arai. J Tre^dado). 

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. 

necpaafitv-og, n, c 

MIDDLE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 
Dual. Plural. 

\ fj,edov, g6ov, cdov. 

Imperfect. 
j [ieOov, cdov, adrjv. 



Singular. 
fya-fiai, cat, rat. 

k<j>a-{i7]V } CO, TO. 



tyao-u, 



do. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 

j 6ov, 6uv. 



fieda, ode, v 
fzeda, ode, i 

6e, daoav. 



INFINITIVE. 

Present. 
(p&odai,. 



PARTICIPLE. 
Present. 

<pdflEV-0£, TJ, 



REMARKS. 



1. The present indicative of §7}\ii, with the exception of 
the second person singular, is enclitic ; i. e., throws back 
its accent upon the preceding word. 

2. The imperfect £(pi]v, &c, is generally placed after 
one or more words of the speaker, as an aorist, like the 
Latin inquit, even when another word of the same signifi- 
cation precedes. "E<pr]v, cpcj, and the infinitive (pdvat, are 
always used of past time ; as, (pdvac rbv IiOtcpdrr], " that 
Socrates has said" 

3. In the language of common life tjv, rjg, t\, is frequently 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 169 

put for £(pi]V, e<p7jg, e(pr]. Thus, r\ d' bg, " ^aec? Ae ;" rjv 6' 
ey(o, " saz<i J." 

4. The aorist ecprjaa is hardly used in the Attic dialect, 
except in the sense of " to maintain ,*" as, drre(p7](7e, " sAe 
refused ;" Xew. Cyrop. 6, 1, 32. The optative (prjaatfii 
and subjunctive 0^ctgj often occur in this same sense. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 1 

1. From irregular verbs must be distinguished the de- 
fectives, of which a considerable number occur in the Greek 
language. These exhibit no deviation in the formation of 
tenses, like the irregular verbs, but are characterized by 
the following peculiarities : 

2. From the great copiousness of the Greek language ; 
from the diversity of its dialects, of which several attained 
a high cultivation, and were established in written produc- 
tions ; and from the particular attention continually bestowed, 
by the Greeks in general, upon the harmony and improve- 
ment of their language, it could not fail to happen that a 
multitude of old forms gradually declined in use, and were, 
at length, entirely supplanted by others of more modern 
date. Thus the simplest form, the present of many verbs, 
has become obsolete, and is no longer to be met with in the 
writings of the Greeks ; while individual forms, chiefly for 
the narrative tense, the aorist, are still in use. 

3. Every such relic of an old verb is now associated 
with the more modern present form to which it belongs in 
signification, although the two frequently possess no resem- 
blance to each other. Thus we say, that to the present 
alpeo) belongs the aorist elXov, although it is impossible for 
the latter form to be deduced in any way from the former, 
but the two are allied together solely by the common sig- 
nification, " to take away." The same is the case with re- 
spect to kXevaoiiat and rjXOov, both being associated with 



1. Rost, G. G. p. 289, seq. 
P 



170 CATALOGUE OF 

the present epxofiac, and to others enumerated in the fol- 
lowing catalogue. 

CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
Observations. 

1. The forms distinguished by capitals are all obsolete 
roots, which are requisite for the deduction of irregular 
forms still in use, but must no longer be used themselves. 

2. To avoid unnecessary prolixity, the extant forms of 
an irregular verb are often not completely enumerated. 
These, however, are merely forms which continue in the 
analogy, and can be formed easily and regularly, and the 
omission is always indicated by &c. Thus, for example, 
in alvio), after assigning the future alveoo), the aorist rjveaa 
can be formed at once, and, therefore, has not been received 
into the catalogue. 

3. "Where the signification is not specifically given, the 
natural one, such as is clear from the signification of the 
present, must be understood to remain. 

4. Forms which are usual only with the poets and in 
the older language are designated by an * at the begin- 
ning. 

A. 

*'kau, "I hurt," of which the aorist aaaa or daa, in the active; 
karat, the third person singular of the present ; adadriv, in the passive 
aorist, and aaadfijjv, in the middle aorist, are alone used. 

'Ayelpco, " J assemble" future, ayspu, perfect, r,ytpKa, both regular. 
The pluperfect, with the Attic reduplication, ayrjyepKa ; third person 
pluperfect passive, *ayrjyepaTO ; third person plural, second aorist mid- 
dle, *7iyepovro, besides its participle *ayp6[iEvog. 

"Ayafiat, "I admire" present and imperfect like larafiat ; future, 
ayaao/iai ; first aorist passive, rjyaadTjv ; first aorist middle, rjyacafiqv. 

'Ayvv/xi, " 1 break," from *AT£l, future, ago ; first aorist, lafa (with 
the old form of the augment), in the epic dialect also rjt-a ; perfect mid- 
dle, Idya (with an intransitive signification, " I am broken") ; second 
aorist passive, kayriv. 

"&yw, " 1 haa\" future, c£u>, &c, ; second aorist, rjyayov \ infinitive 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 171 

of the second aorist, dyayetv ; second aorist middle, Tjyayojirjv (all these 
three with the Attic reduplication) ; perfect, rix a i Doric hyrjoxa. 

*AEipu, " I raise up," used only in the participle, decpov ; participle 
passive, decpo/ievoc ; participle of the first aorist active, deipae ; of the 
first aorist middle, dsipafievog ; of the first aorist passive, depdeic ; and 
in the third person singular of the first aorist passive, depBrj ; the third 
person plural of the same tense, uepdev ; the third person singular of the 
pluperfect passive, aopro. All its remaining forms are deduced from 
alpu. 

*'AES2, infinitive, arjvat or a7}fi£vcu, " to blow," retains the long char- 
acteristic vowel also in the dual and plural, as well as in the passive. 
Present passive, urjfiaL ; first aorist active, deaa ; first aorist infinitive 
active, aeaai, " to sleep." 

Alveo, " J praise," future, alvica, &c. ; perfect passive, yvrjfiai ; but 
first aorist passive, yved^v. 

Alpeu, " / take," future, alprjaa ; perfect, f/prjica, Ionic, upaiprjua ; 
perfect passive, yprjfiaL ; first aorist passive, ypidrjv. The second aorist 
is borrowed from the obsolete root 'EA12, and makes z'ikov, infinitive 
iXety, for the active ; and ei?i6/j.7]v, infinitive iteadai, for the middle. 
Alpu, " / raise," future, apfi, &c. 

Aladdvofxac, " I feel " future, aladijaofiai, &c. ; second aorist, yado- 
fXTjv ; perfect, yadrjixai. 

*AKax[tevoc t " pointed," perfect participle passive, from an unusual 
root, which may be 'AKAZS2 or 'AK(2, according as a reduplication is 
assumed or not in aK.axfJ.evog. 

*'AKAXG, " J afflict," second aorist, rjnaxov ; first aorist, ijKaxrioa 
or a/cd^ca ; second aorist middle, i]Kaxofirjv or aKaxojirjv ; perfect 
passive, aKuxtipcu and aK7Jx £ f J ' ac j third person plural perfect passive, 
a,K7]xedarai for aKTjxtvrai ; third person plural pluperfect passive, anax- 
eiaro for dudxrivTO. 

*'A7ie£lvg), " i" avoid," to which the epic forms of the first aorist mid- 
dle are, rfkzvaro or dlevaro ; participle, dTievdftevog ; infinitive, akiaa- 
6ai and akevaadat, deduced from a root 'AAE without a. 

'AAefw, " I avert," future, discoid ; and, from 'AAEKQ, the first ao- 
rist middle infinitive, a"kel-aodai. From the syncopated form 'AAKJ2, 
and by reduplication, are formed the epic second aorist infinitive, aka'k- 
keIv, &c. 

'AXdatvo, " I heal," future, d?Srjau ; second aorist middle, *dW6u7]v y 
with an intransitive signification. 

'AXiaKOfiat, " I am caught," from 'AAOS2, future, dluaofiai ; second 
aorist active (with a passive signification, " i" was caught"), rfkuv, Attic 
idXuv ; second aorist infinitive, dTiiovai ; second aorist subjunctive, d/US, 



172 CATALOGUE OF 

dAwc, &c. ; second aorist optative, dTioinv ; participle of second aorist, 
a?iov<; ; perfect, rjTiuna, Attic taXoica (in a passive signification, " I have 
been caught"). 

*'A2,iTalva), " I sin," future, akiTrjoa ; second aorist, rfkirov ; second 
aorist middle, rfkiroiinv. Also dhiTrjfievog, as present participle middle, 
from an accessory form, akirrifii. 

"Allofiat, " I spring" future, akovjiai ; first aorist, foafinv ; second 
aorist middle, rfkoiinv ; epic, in the second and third persons, syncopated 
and without aspiration, akao, akro. 

*'AJiv<7ko), " I shun," future, akv^u ; first aorist, rfkv^a. 

'Ajj-apTavo, "I err," future, djiapTrjaofiai ; perfect, fjfidpTnita, ; second 
aorist, rjfiaprov, epic rj^porov. 

'AfiBlicnto, " I miscarry," future, dfiSTioao, &c, from 'AMBAOG. 

'KfiiTEX^ and afimaxvov/xaL, see under v E^w. 

^kfiTcTiaKLGKa, " I err" or " miss," future, dfnrlaKrjau ; second ao- 
rist, riinzkanov ; second aorist infinitive, ainrlanelv. 

'Afj.(j)t,evvvfit, " I dress," 'AM^IEG, future, dfifisoo, Attic, afKpiu ; 
first aorist, Tjfxfyieaa ; perfect passive, riii§iEO[iai, dfupielfiai. 

'AvaliGKo, " I consume" or "spend," forms from ava\6u> the future, 
ovc^lcjo-w ; first aorist, dvd?Mca ; perfect, avdloKa, both unaugmented 
with the Attics ; but in Ionic with tbe augment rjvaktjua or avifkuKa. : 

'Avddvu, " I please," imperfect, rjvdavov, an&eavdavov epic, also £^v- 
davov ; second aorist, eaoov epic, and also adov, besides the third per- 
son, evade ; second aorist infinitive, ddetv ; perfect, 'idda and edda ; fu- 
ture, ddrjau. 

*'Avr]vo8ev, third person singular of the perfect middle, to denote a 
finished action, " gushes forth," " rises up ;" to be derived from 'AN0G, 
allied to dvdeu, " I flower." 

'Avoiyo or hvoiyvvy:i, see Olyu. 

*"Avuya, an old perfect form of uncertain derivation, and with a pres- 
ent meaning, " I command" or " commission." First person plural in a 
syncopated form, avoyfiev ; imperative, dvuxdc, besides rjvuyea as a plu- 
perfect. Hence a new present, dvuyu ; imperfect, fjvuyov and rjvuyeov ; 
future, dvutjo ; first aorist, rjvul-a. 

*'ATznvpcjv, as first person singular and third person plural of the im- 
perfect, with also an aorist signification, " I took away ;" second person, 
OTrvvpac ; third person, drrnvpa, from an assumed radical form, uiravpaw, 
of which, however, nothing occurs besides the forms just enumerated. 
To it a-novpaq belongs as a participle, although their connexion does not 
admit of being clearly pointed out. 

*'A7ra0/c7cw, " I deceive," second aorist, fjirafyov ; second aorist infin- 
itives aTrafelv ; future, aTva&rjoo. \ 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 173 

'ATrexOavofiac, " I am hated," future, dnexQy ao l iaL > perfect, aiziJxOn- 
[icu ; second aorist, dTTT]x66jj,r]v. 

'ApaptGKG), " I Jit," second aorist, rjpapov ; future, apau ; first aorist, 
■qpca ; first aorist middle, rjpadfirjv. The perfect middle, updpa or dpnpa, 
has an intransitive signification, as also the perfect passive, upTJpe/iai. 

'kpeonu, " / make favourable" or "pleasing," also intransitive "7 
please," future, apeou, &c. ; perfect passive, r}pea\iai ; first aorist pas- 
sive, jjpsodnv. 

'APfl, radical form to dpapicKo and iipicnu ; also to alpu. 

Av^dvu, " I increase," second aorist, rjvl-ov ; future, av^au ; first 
aorist, r/vgrjua ; perfect passive, nvtjrjfiai ; first aorist passive, nv^rjdrjv ; 
first future middle, av^?JGOfj,ac, as future passive, " I shall grow" i. e., 
be increased. 

'Axdo/xart, " I am vexed," future, uxdiaofiat ; first aorist passive, r/X" 

rdni, 

*'AX£2, radical form to uxvvfiai and 'AKAXS2. 



Batvu, " I go," primitive form BAQ, by reduplication Bt,j3do, j3i6t]/j,i, 
or, by the insertion of ok, [Suoiccj ; future, /3^aofiat, ; perfect, (3s6nKa ; 
second aorist, Itrjv ; second aorist subjunctive, (3ti ; second aorist op- 
tative, fiainv ; imperative, j3^6t ; infinitive, firivai ; participle, /3ac. 
Some compounds take a transitive signification, and therefore form 
also the passive forms, perfect, PeCa/uat ; first aorist, kBdarjv. In the 
Ionic dialect the simple verb is also used in the transitive sense, " to 
lead," " to bring," and the future /3^ao and first aorist e6naa stand ex- 
clusively in this signification. The following accessory forms, from the 
dialects, must also be observed. 1. Of the third person present, /3c6d, 
participle, /3l6uv, formed from (3t6da, and {3i6dc from (3i6n/u.i. 2. Of the 
second aorist, third person dual, fSurnv, besides j3t)tt]v ; third person 
plural, t6av, besides I6naav ; subjunctive, /3cj, lengthened into 6so and 
Beicj, plural, fisLOfiEv. 3. The syncopated accessory forms of the perfect, 
first person plural, f3e6a/jev, third person plural, (3e6daai ; third person 
plural of the pluperfect, fiefjacav ; participle of the perfect, f3e6auc, j3e6- 
avla, contracted (3e66c, (3e6C)aa, &c. All these forms belong to the 
poets, and particularly to the epic poets, with whom an aorist middle, 
ftrjaero, and an imperative, (SrjdEo, also occur. 

BuAAcj, " I throw," future, (3o,a£), Ionic and with later writers, ftaXTirj* 
Gio ; second aorist, sdaXov ; perfect, (3i6?.nKa ; perfect passive, (3e62,v/j.ai ; 
first*aorfst passive, kdArjdrjv ; second aorist middle, e6aAo/j.7jv. There 
are also formed in epic, from an assumed form BAHMI, a third person 
dual, (i^TTiv, either of the imperfect o* second aorist ; and a third per- 
P2 



174 CATALOGUE OP 

son singular of the second aorist middle, e62,nTo, with a passive signifi- 
cation ; besides the infinitive, fiXfjcdai ; participle, (S^fievog ; optative, 
pieifiqv, [SXeco. Epic writers also form (3e6o7i^aTo, as a third person 
singular of the pluperfect passive ; and 6e6o"krjjJ.ivog, as a perfect parti- 
ciple passive, from an accessory form BOAEfl. 

*BAPE£2, usual present, ftapvvu, " I load ;" from the old radical form 
comes the epic perfect participle (3e6aprj6g. 

Baardfa, " J bear," future, (3aaTdau, &c. ; adopts in the passive the 
other mode of formation, according to the characteristic y ; as, first ao- 
rist passive, k6aardxdr]v. 

BddKco, BA£2, BIBHMI, see Baivu. 

Bi(3ptJCKo, " / eat" from BPOfl, future, j3pd)oco and fipucroficu, &c. ; 
second aorist, e6pov. 

Biau, " Hive" future, fituaoficu ; first aorist, hSiuaa, besides the sec- 
ond aorist, kBiov, of which the remaining moods are chiefly used ; as, 
subjunctive, fiiti, (3iu>g, &c. ; optative, j3i6vv ; imperative, (3iu6c ; infin- 
itive, Biuvac ; participle, (Siovg. 

BTiaardvo), " / sprout," future, (3Xaar^ao}, &c. ; second aorist, e6- 
haarov. 

BAHMI and BOAEQ, see (3dXla. 

Bogku, " I feed," future, fioanriGu, &c. 

BovTiOftai, " I will," imperfect, k6ov\5[n]v and 7}6ov2,6{inv ; future, 
ftovktjGoiiai ; perfect, f3e6ovX7iftat ; first aorist, k6ovX?j6i]v and ri&ov7J]Qr\v . 

BPOG, see BiBptocrtcG). 



Yafiio, " I marry," future, yafieco, Attic, ya/zti, also yafiTjco ; per- 
fect, yeydjj.r]Ka ; first aorist, syrjfia ; first aorist infinitive, yijfxai ; future 
middle, yafzov/nat ; first aorist middle, eyrjfidfiiiv, from the root TAMS2. 

*Teyo)va, a form for the perfect, similar to dvaya, used also in the 
signification of the imperfect and aorist, " I cried aloud;" participle, ye- 
yo>v6g ; infinitive, yeyovelv and yeyuvifiev. Also a new imperfect, 
kyeyuvevv, contracted from kyeyuveov. 

TEN12, the obsolete root of yeivofiat (a purely poetic form) and yivo- 
fiai or yiyvofiat, which transitively signifies, " / beget ;" intransitively, 
" I am born," "arise," "become." The transitive signification, how- 
ever, belongs only to the aorist eyeLvdprjv, " I begat." All the remain- 
ing forms in use, namely, future, yev7]GO[iai ; second aorist, eyev4/j.i]v ; 
perfect, yiyova and ysyevr^iai, have the intransitive signification akpne. 
In epic, and with the poets, perfect, yeyaa ; third person plural, yeydaai ; 
first person plural, yiyafiev ; infinitive, yeydfisv ; participle, yeyowf, ye- 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 175 

yavla, contracted yeyug, yeyuaa; which forms are all to be deduced 
from the simple root TE, and by change of sound TA. 

TnOeo, " I rejoice," future, yrjOijao), <&c. ; perfect middle, yiynda, in 
the signification of the present. 

TiyvucKO) (Attic, besides ytvuoKO)), " I know," root, PNOS2, future, 
yvuao/xat ; perfect, eyvcoica ; perfect passive, eyvaofiai ; first aorist pas- 
sive, kyvuadnv. The second aorist, formed according to the conjuga- 
tion in [u, is iyvuv ; plural, syvufiev, &c. ; infinitive, yvuvat ; impera- 
tive, yvudi, yvurco, &c. ; optative, yvoinv ; participle, yvovc. 

A. 

Aafjvai, see AAft. 

Adtcvo, " I bite," from AHKG, future, drjijopai ; perfect, dediixa, &c. ; 
second aorist, sdattov. 

Aafidw, " Z fame" or " subdue," simple root, AAMS2, whence second 
aorist, eddfiov ; subjunctive, daftu, lengthened into dafiiu and dafieico ; 
perfect, didp-vKa ; perfect passive, 8e6p.7]iiat ; first aorist passive, idjiridnv. 

Aapddvo, " I sleep," future, dapdrjaofiai ; perfect, deddpdrjua ; second 
aorist, eSapQov, by transposition, edpadov ; and, with a passive form but 
an active signification, hddpdrjv. 

*AA£2, primitive to SiddaKo, " I teach," from which, with an active 
signification only, second aorist, sSaov or dsdaov. The most usual forms 
are, the second aorist passive, eddnv, " I was taught ;" infinitive, daijvai ; 
subjunctive, daeto (by an epic prolongation for 6au) ; future, darjoofiai. 
The passive signification belongs also to the perfect, deddnKa, dedaa, 
deSd-nfj.cn. Of the middle, the epic infinitive, deddacdai, (( to become ac- 
quainted with," "inquire into" is alone extant. 

Aei, see Aew. 

Aeidu, see Aid. 

AsiKvvfii, " I show," future, dei^o, &c. The Ionians make the de- 
rivative forms without i, thus, Se^cj, edet-a, &c. The epic form of the 
perfect passive, deideypai, is irregular. 

Ae/icj, "I build," first aorist, edetfia; perfect, ded/inica ; to be distin- 
guished from the like forms of the verb da/xdcj. 

Aep/cw, usually SepKOfiat, " J see," perfect, dedopica, with a present 
signification ; second aorist, edpanov (by transposition from edapnov'), 
also edpdKTjv and kdepxQnv, all with an active signification. 

^ato^u" I receive," future, di^o/xat, &c. The epic forms of the 
^£ttfl| Bjk without a connective vowel, edey/nr/v, third person singu- 
VHHn^d edcKTo ; imperative, detjo ; infinitive, dexOcu ; participle, 
diyp-evog, are to be observed. 

Aew, " J bina\" future, dqou ; first aorist, Ztyoa \ perfect, dedena ; 



176 CATALOGUE OP 

peifect passive, dedefiat ; first aorist passive, Edednv. The third future 
passive, dedrjcofiai, has the signification of the simple future passive. 

Aew, " I want" " am deficient" passive, diojiat, " I have need of," 
" beg ;" future, defou, &c. In general, the active occurs only as an im- 
personal ; present, Set ; subjunctive, den ; optative, Sioi ; infinitive, delv ; 
participle, deov ; imperfect, edei ; first aorist, kdir/ae ; future, derjaec. 
AHKS2, see Aa/cvw. 

AidacKcj, " J teach,'''' future, (Jidafw ; first aorist, kdidat-a ; perfect, 
deoYda^a, &c. 

Aidpucntc), " I run away," usually occurring only in compounds, bor- 
rows, from the root APAS2, the future, 6pdaop.at ; perfect, dedpana ; sec- 
ond aorist, edpav, ac, a ; subjunctive, dpd, dpac, 6pa, &c. ; optative, 
dpairjv ; imperative, dpadi ; infinitive, dpavai ; participle, Spue, all 
formed according to the conjugation in fit. 

Al&fit, " I seek," retains the long characteristic vowel in the passive 
form, contrary to the analogy of the conjugation in fit. 

Aco), " I fear," "fly ;" dlo/nai,, " / scare," '* terrify," both in use only 
with epic writers. Hence are deduced the perfect, dedia, "I fear," in 
epic also deidta ; plural, without a connecting vowel, Seidtfisv, dndtrs, 
dsidlaci ; imperative, deiSidi ; infinitive, detdtevat, epic deidifiev ; parti- 
ciple, deidiug, genitive, -oroc and -uroc ; third person plural of the imper- 
fect, edelSiaav. The common language has the present, deidu ; future, 
deioofiai ; first aorist, edetcra, epic eddetaa ; perfect, dedoiica, with a 
present signification. 

Aokeo), " I appear," " seem," from AOKfl, future, do^u, &c. ; per- 
fect, with a passive form, deSoyfiai, " / have appeared." The regular 
formation, do/cr/co, &c, is more rare. 
APAS2, see AidpacnG). 

Avvafiat, " J am aWe," second person, dvvacai (not (5wt?) ; imperfect, 
ijdvvd^rjv, conjugated like lora/nat ; future, dvv7joo{j.ai ; first aorist, edw- 
5?07?v and kdvvaodnv ; perfect, dedvvr}/iai. 

Avu, " J cover," future, ducrw ; first aorist, eSvoa ; first aorist passive, 
eSvdnv. The perfect, dediiica, and the second aorist, eSvv; infinitive, 
dvvat, epic dvfievat ; participle, 6v$-, have, like the middle, whose forms 
are regular, the signification, " to immerse one's self," " to inwrap one's 
self" 



E. 

'Eyetpw, " I wake" or " arouse," regular in most of its i 
kyrj-yepua (with the Attic reduplication). The middle, 
awake," syncopates the second aorist, ^ypo/nnv (for ^yspo/inv) ; Trfflnfrve, 
kypeodac To- this middle the perfect eypijyopa {fox kyijyopa) belongs 



env) ; lrrrmitive, 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 177 

in signification, besides the epic accessory forms kypriyopBe and eypnyop- 
Qaai (as the second and third persons plural), and the infinitive, kypq- 
ydpdac. 

"E&j, " I eat," used in this form only with the epic writers and Ioni- 
ans, besides the perfect, edrjda (with the Attic reduplication), and the 
future, edofiat (for kdovfiai). Prose writers make use of kadio as a pres- 
ent, and attach to it forms from sdo, EAEG : perfect, kdridona {rjdEna, 
by change of vowel Tjdona, with the Attic reduplication kdrjdoica) ; per- 
fect passive, kd^Seafiai ; first aorist passive, Tjdiadnv. As second a> 
rist active, £<payov ; infinitive, <j>ayecv. 

*~Efa{iat, " I sit," future, kdovfiac. 

'E6e?m and tfeAw, " I am willing," future, ede^r/co and delrjcu, &c. 

"E0o>, " I am wont" only with epic writers, together with the perfect 
middle elaOa, Ionic soda, in the same signification. 

EIAft, an obsolete form with the signification " I see," " perceive," in 
epic yet used as a passive, eldopat, " / am seen," " appear," " seem," 
besides the aorist shafinv or keLcafirjv. The primitive form is IA£2 ; 
second aorist, eldov, epic also without augment, ISov ; subjunctive, I6u ; 
optative, Idoi/it ; imperative, Ids ; infinitive, Ideiv ; participle, I66v ; 
second aorist middle, eldojivv, ISSfinv, in the same signification. The 
perfect olda ("I have perceived" or " seen into," i. e., " I know"), which 
belongs thereto, is anomalous in formation and conjugation (vid. page 
166) ; second aorist subjunctive, eldo ; optative, eideiijv ; imperative, 
lodi ; infinitive, eldivcu, epic, Ionic ISfievat ; participle, el66c, via, 6c, 
&c. ; pluperfect, ydecv, epic ydea, Attic rjdi] (formed from the root eid 
with an augment) ; second person, ydeic and ydetada, also ydnada ; third 
person, ySet, epic r/dee and ydeev ; dual, ydecrov or ycrov ; third person, 
TjdeiTTjv or qornv ; plural, ydsL/xsv or ycfiev ; ydeire or yore ; ydeaav or 
#<rav. Epic collateral forms of this pluperfect are, first person, rjeideiv ; 
second persons, Tjecdeie or 7/sl6tjc ; third person, 7jeidei, rjeidrj, or %eide. 
As future to otoa stands eloopai, " I shall know." 

Ei/ccj, " / am Zi£e," besides the future el^u, usual only in the older 
language. The common language has the perfect middle, eouca, Ionic 
olica ; first person plural, eoinafiev and eoiy/iEv, in the present significa- 
tion ; participle, koinuc, Ionic o'ckcjc, Attic slave (which is always used 
by the Attics for the signification probable, reasonable ; while eolkcoc in 
Attic only signifies similar) ; pluperfect, eukelv. Epic collateral forms 
without a connecting vowel are elktov and ktKTijv, as third person dual 
of the perfect and pluperfect, and tjlkto or elkto, as third person singu- 
lar of the pluperfect with a passive form. 

* 1 El7i,u and elXeu, Attic ei/lew, " I press" future, elXijcu, &c. Epic 
writers adopt forms from the root 'EAS2, as, first aorist, e/lcra ; infinitive, 



178 CATALOGUE OF 

Vkcai or eelcrai ; participle, IXoac ; perfect passive, hTifiai ; second ao- 
rist passive, kdlnv or iaknv, and as third person singular pluperfect pas- 
sive, eSIvto. 

Elftaprai, see MEIPOMAI. 

"E'nreiv, " to say," used only as an aorist ; indicative, eittov ; subjunct- 
ive, elttcj ; optative, elrroifu ; imperative, eitve, in the plural, besides eltt- 
ere, also egttete ; participle, eItcuv. Besides these a first aorist also 
Eliva, particularly usual in the imperative, eItzov, EiTzdru, &c. 

Elpo, " I say," as a present only in epic ; future, epew, Attic kpd ; 
perfect, Etpnica ; perfect passive, elpijficu ; future, Elprjoofiai (with a mid- 
dle form and a passive signification) ; first aorist passive, slp^dnv Ionic, 
hppridrjv Attic ; infinitive, p"ndfjvai ; participle, pvdsic ; future, (yqdfiGO- 
uac ; from a root PES2. 

Eipw, " I connect together," perfect passive, eepfiat ; pluperfect pas- 
sive, kspfinv. 

Hiuda, see e6u. 

'EAawy and e%da) " J drive," future, kTvaaa, Attic c/laj, eAaf, kla, 
&c. ; infinitive, eAav ; first aorist, y?Moa ; perfect, EkrfkuKa ; perfect 
passive, kXffiafiat, third person plural epic, klnladaTaL for EkifkavraL \ 
first aorist passive, rjTiddnv. 

EAEYGft, EAY0G, EA6G, see "Epxofiat. 

*"EXTro/2ai, " i" hope," perfect middle, sokrca ; pluperfect, euIttsiv. 

'EAO, see Alpeu. 

ENErKfl, ENEIKfl, see *epu. 

*'Eve7rcj, also evve-ku, " 7 relate," " ie//," second aorist, evigizov ; 
subjunctive, evlgtzo) ; optative, kviaitoifii ; imperative, evlgtze ; infini- 
tive, evlgtzelv ; future, evlgtztjgo) and hvtyu. From it must be distin- 
guished ev'cktu or evLggcj, " 7 chide," " address harshly," to which the 
double form of the second aorist belongs, namely, r/viTzwrzov and evevItzov. 

*'~E.vx]vo8e, "is or /ies thereon," an old perfect form, with the signifi- 
cation of the present and aorist, used only in composition, as, EizEvrjvode 
and the like, formed from an obsolete root, 'EN9S2, by the insertion of 
o, or from 'ENE9Q by change of the vowel, and in both cases with the 
Attic reduplication. 

*'Evi7rrcj, see under ''Evetzo. 

*"~Evvvp,i,, " I dress," in the present formed regularly like dst/cvvfit, 
takes an augment only in the perfect ; future, ego and eggu ; first ao- 
rist, saaa ; infinitive, egcli ; perfect passive, slpat, and in compounds 
also EGfiai ; pluperfect passive, eI[it}v ; second person, eIgo and eggo ; 
third person, egto and eegto (from EGfinv, EEGfiwv). 

*'~ETravp£iv, " to enjoy," as second aorist infinitive, from the indica- 
tive, knnvpov ; subjunct ve, kiravpu ; second aorist middle, k7znvp6ft7]v ; 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 179 

first aorist middle, ETrnvpafinv ; future, ETravp^aofiai. The present is 
knavpioaw, of rare occurrence. 

'Emara/iai, " I know," imperfect, qmcTafinv (like IffTdfiat) ; future, 
lirLGTjjooficu ; first aorist, r/TTLar^dnv. 

* tr E / rro), " I am occupied," " am about something," takes el in prefixing 
the augment of the imperfect, eIttov ; second aorist, egtzov ; subjunctive, 
ottw ; infinitive, ckelv (used only in compounds). The middle ETtojiai, 
" I follow" is also much used in prose ; imperfect, e'nroftnv ; future, 
bpofiai ; second aorist, egtcojjlvv ; subjunctive, GTzcbfiai and EGTro/xac ; 
optative, GTtoifxqv and sairolfinv ; imperative, gttov, epic ctteo and gtteZo ; 
infinitive, aizeadat, and eaTrsadac ; participle, ck6\ievoc and egtz6[1£voc. 
The forms of the moods of this second aorist, with £ prefixed, are pecu- 
liar to the poets alone, and can never be used in composition. 

'Epdu, " I love," has, besides the present, only the imperfect, fjpuv, 
with an active form. The remaining tenses have a passive form, but 
are used in an active sense, as, first aorist, rjpdadrjv ; future, hpaadrjao- 
fiat. The present bpujxat alone has also a passive signification. A po- 
etic collateral form with an active signification is Spa/tai ; first aorist, 
rjpaad[inv. 

"EPrfl and epdo, see Te£u. 

"Epo/iai, " I ask," occurs in the general language only as an aorist, 
namely, r/pSfinv, ypero, to which the remaining moods must also be 
added, although the infinitive is accented epeadac as well as kpeodat- 
Future, eprjoofiat. All deficiency is supplied by kpurao. The Ionians 
have, instead of it, the present elpojuat, imperfect Eip6/j.nv, future eipf}- 
aofiat. 

"Eppo, " I go away," future, kppfjcu ; first aorist, ripp'rjoa. 

'Epvdaivo, also kpevdu, " I make red," future, hpvdrjcu ; first aorist, 
qpvdrjva and fjpevca ; perfect, rjpvdnKa. 

*'EpvKu, " I keep back," future, kpvt;d) ; first aorist, ipv^a (rare) ; 
more usual, second aorist, TjpvuaKov. 

"Epxofiai, " I go," forms from 'EAEYGG the future eXevaofiat or e/l- 
EV<7ovfj.at ; second aorist, ylvdov, Attic rfkQov, Doric fjvdov ; infinitive, 
hldelv ; imperative, kids, &c. ; perfect, hlrj?.vda, epic also ellrjlovda. 

'Ecdio, " J eat," see *E6u. 

Eiido), KaOsvdo), " I sleep," future.. Evd-fjau, nadEvdfjao ; imperfect, 
EKud£v6ov, more rarely tcadnvdov and xadEvdov. 

EvpLGno, " I find," from EYPS2 ; second aorist, Evpov ; imperative, 
evpi ', future, Evptjaw ; perfect, Evpvua ; perfect passive, Evprjjiai ; first 
aorist passive, Evpsdriv : aorist middle, rvpS/xvv and Evpd\inv. 

r Ex^°l iai i " I am hated," future, ExGijaofiat, \ perfect, 7}x®W at " 

"E^w, " I liave," future, £& and ox?jau ; second aorist, layov \ bfin- 



180 CATALOGUE OF 

itive, axetv ; subjunctive, cr^w ; optative, axoiqv ; imperative, a%e, and, 
also o-^cf (for axedi, according to the conjugation in fit) ; perfect, eaxvKa. 
Passive future, ax^Orjao/xai. Middle, future, e^ojxai and axv<yo/u,aL ; sec- 
ond aorist, haxofirjv. From the root 2X£2, whence the aorist is bor- 
rowed, a new present is formed, with the prefix i, namely, loxu, " J hold 
or keep" to which also the future cxvw belongs in signification. 
The following, as compounds of e^w, must be adduced on account of 
certain irregularities : 

1. avexopai, " I endure" takes a double augment; as, imper- 
fect, 7]veix6[i7]v ; second aorist, jyvecr^o/z^v. 

2. afiTrexu, " I wrap up" imperfect, ajntelxov ; future, afx^u ; 
second aorist, 7//j,7rt(rx ov 5 infinitive, aftTcicxetv. Middle, a/z- 
Trexofiat or afuuoxvov/iai, " I have on ;" future, a//0efo/*<u ; 
second aorist, ??//7UO%o//77v. 

3. VTuaxvovfiat, " I promise," future, viroaxv^o/xai ; second ao- 
rist, vTreaxofirjv ; imperative, from the passive, vrtoax^OvTi ; 
perfect, vTreaxVpai- 

"Ei/>6), " I boil," future, iipijoo, &c. ", verbal adjective, e<pdug and tyn- 
roc, iipnriog. 



Zaw, "I live," takes, in contraction, n instead of a, as, second persons 
Qqc ; third person, £??, &c. ; infinitive, C,yv. Imperative, ZfiQi (according 
to the conjugation in \ii) ; imperfect, e&v, Z&s, &c, 

Zevyvvfit, " I join," future, frvt-o), &c. ; second aorist passive, h^vyrjv. 

Zuvvvui, " I gird," future, Cwacj, & c . perfect passive, k&ofiai ; 
first aorist passive, k&odnv. 

H. 

Hfiai, " J sit." In prose, the compound Kadnfiat, which generally 
takes the augment in the preposition, is more usual ; imperfect, knadf}' 
finv, and also forms peculiar moods ; as, subjunctive, Kadu/iat ; opta- 
tive, xadoifinv ; imperative, nadrjao (also nadov, for icddeao, with the a 
dropped). As varieties of dialect, the collateral forms of the third per- 
son plural, tjvtcu and tjvto, are to be observed, which in Ionic are earai, 
laro, and in epic elarac, elaro. 

e. 

6AN£2, see tivfjCKU). 

0d7iT6), " Z bury," forms, from the root 0A$G, future, ■&d,Tpc) ; first 
aorist, edaipa ; perfect, Tirana ; perfect passive, rida/u/mc ; first aorist 
passive, kda<pQrjv ; second aorist passive, kratyrjv, and so on. From this 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 181 

is to be distinguished the obsolete form 9A$S2, "lam astonished," from 
which rednna, as a perfect middle, with a present signification, and 'ira- 
<pov, as a second aorist, occur in the poets. 

Qeco, " I run," future, -dsvaofiaL or d-evaov/xac ; the remaining tenses 
are supplied by the forms of rpex^- 

Qty-ydvo), " I touch" forms, from fiiyo, future, -&c^u and ■Qi^oiiat ; 
second aorist, edcyov. 

QvrjGKu, "I die," forms, from GANG, second aorist, edavov; future, 
<&avovfiat ; perfect, reOvnua (by transposition of the radical letters), be- 
sides the syncopated forms, first person plural, redva.fj.ev ; third person 
plural, redvdat ; optative, redvai-nv ; imperative, redvadc ; infinitive, 
redvdvai ; participle, reOvnudic, together with re6ve6c, redvvuc, redvec- 
6c. From the perfect is formed a future, redvr/^o and redv^o/xat, in 
frequent use with the Attics. 

Qopeo and 90PQ, see -&p6atccj. 

Qpe(j)G), see Tpe(j>o. 

Qpexo), see Tpexo. 

QpvTTTo, " I bruise," future, d-pvipu, &c. ; second aorist passive, krpv- 

*Qp6aK0), (i I spring," forms, from GOPG, second aorist, edopov ; 
future, ftopov/iai. 
eY$£2, see Tityo. 
Qvu, " I sacrifice," future, -&vao), &c. • first aorist passive, krvdnv. 

1 

TAG, see EHu, 

*I£b, Kadi^a, "I seat," "make to sit," future, l^ao), KadL^ca, or 
KaOcu (for Kadiau) ; first aorist, kuddcaa. 

'iKvhfiaL, more rarelv 'Iko, " I come," future, %%u ; usual, Igoficu ; 
first aorist, l£a ; usual, first aorist, l§ov ; second aorist middle, lno- 
ftrjv ; perfect, lyfiat. In prose, the compound apxpiKveofiai is alone used. 

'IXaoKOfiaL, (i I propitiate ," " appease," future, Vkdaofiat, epic 'Ckaaoo- 
jml (from the root i/Xdoiiat or IXafiat,, which are still used in single forms 
with the epic writers) ; first aorist, tXaadfinv. Of the active, IXdu and 
iXvfii, " / am propitious," an imperative, IXndi ; and of the perfect a 
subjunctive, IXtjkc) ; optative, IXijicoifu ; occur with the epic writers. 

"I7rra/j,ai, see izeTOiiai.. 

K. 

*KAAG, a primitive for the derivation of several verbal forms : 1. for 
Katvvfiai, " I am distinguished," " excel" perfect, KeKaa\iai ; pluperfect, 
kKEndoiinv : 2. for icfjdo, " I" trouble," future, Ketia&rjoo ; second aorist 



182 CATALOGUE OF 

infinitive, KenaSeXv ; participle, KEicaduv. Middle, Krjdofiat, "lam troub- 
led" future, KEKaS^aofiac ; perfect, usiirjda, with a present signification. 
3. For X"& or X^°f J ' a h " I gi ve way," second aorist, Kenadopnv, be- 
sides the regular kxaadfirjv or kxaaGdfirjv. 

Kade&fiai, Kadevdo), nadrifiai, Kadi^u, see 'i^ojiai, evSco, qfiai, Ifa. 

Kaivvpat, see KAAQ. 

Kaio, " I burn," Attic /caw, with long a, and without contraction ; 
future, navcu ; first aorist, enavca ; perfect, Ksnavica ; perfect passive, 
KSKavfiai ; first aorist passive, EKavdrjv ; second aorist passive, ekclvv. 
Besides the given form of the first aorist, must be observed the double 
epic form enrja and siesta, and the Attic sKsa, all formed without a ; sub- 
junctive, Krju ; optative, Kyatfit ; imperative, nslov ; infinitive, KijaL ; 
participle, Ksiag. Also in epic Enndfirjv and knsidfiriv occur in the mid- 
dle form. 

Ka/lew, " I call" future, tcaMao, Attic nalti ; first aorist, sKa?,zca ; 
perfect, /ce/c/t^/ca ; first aorist passive, sK?irjdr]v ; perfect passive, hskXtj- 
fiai, " i" am named," " am called ;" optative, ksk?i^tjv, kekXvo, &c. ; 
future passive, nhrjdrjoofiai. ; third future passive, KSKkrjao\iai. Middle, 
in the same signification with the active, future, Ka?iov/j,ai (for naXsao- 
fiat) ; first aorist, endXsGuuriv. 

Kdfivu, " I grow weary" from KAM£2 ; second aorist, lKa\iov ; fu- 
ture, nafiovfiai ; perfect, KEK/j,7jica ; participle, kek/j,1]k6c, epic KSKfifjuc. 

Kslfiat, " I lie" second person, Kscoat, &c. ; subjunctive, tcsufiat, 
Ksy, &c. ; optative, Keoijinv ; imperative, kslgo ; infinitive, KslaQai ; 
participle, kel/ievoc ; imperfect, sKsifxrjv, ekslgo, &c. ; future, tceico/xat ; 
epic and Ionic collateral forms of the third person plural present are kel- 
arat and /tsarac for KeTvrac. In composition with prepositions, the ac- 
cent recedes in the indicative to the preposition ; but in the infinitive it 
remains on the root ; as, KardKeifiat, but naTaKEXadat. 

Kspdvvvfu, " I mingle," from Kepdo, which is still found in the epic 
language ; future, Kspacru, Attic Kspti ; first aorist, Eaepdaa, epic /cep- 
aaaa, also Enprjca ; perfect, KEKpana ; perfect passive, KEKpdfiai and 
KEKspao-fiat ; first aorist passive, EKpaQiqv and EKEpdGdrjv, 

Kepdaivo, " I gain," future, tcepdavti and Kspdijau ; first aorist, e/cep- 
dnva, Etcepddva, and huepdrjoa. 

Kfidu, see KAA£2. 

Kipvrjfu, an epic collateral form of KEpdvvv/u, which see. 

Kt^avw, " I reach," " overtake," subjunctive, /a^w, epic Ktxsiu ; op- 
tative, Ktxeir]v ; infinitive, Kixvvat, ; participle, Ktxeie ; third person 
dual of the imperfect, KtxvrTjv, all formed from KIXHMI ; future, /c^- 
cru and KLXV^ofJ-ai ; second aorist, etaxov. 

KixPWh see Xp'do. 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 183 

K/la£o>, " I sound," future, KAdygu ; first aorist, etcAayga ; perfect 
middle, KenAnya ; second aorist, 'inAayov. 

KAaia, "I weep," Attic kMcj, with long a, and without contraction,* 
future, Klavoo[j.ai or nAavcovjiai ; first aorist, luAavaa ; perfect, kek- 
Aavita. The future k?mi?jog) or KAa^ao is more rare. 

*K/lvw, " I hear," imperative, nAvdi and kekAvOi. 

Kopevvv/u, " 7 satisfy," future, /copeco ; first aorist, eKopeaa ; per- 
fect, KEKopvKa ; perfect passive, KEKopeafiai, Ionic and epic /ce/cop^ai. 

*Kopvo<Ju, " 7 arm," perfect passive, KenopvOfiai. 

Kpafa, "I cry," perfect middle, KEnpaya ; first person plural, KEitpay- 
fiev ; imperative, KEtcpaxdc ', third future passive, KEKpdgoficu ; second 
aorist, enpayov. 

Kpe/xdvvvfii, " I suspend," passive, upEuuvvvfiai, "lam suspended," 
and as a middle, " i" suspend myself ;" upefta/iat (like larafxat), " 7 
hang," to which are joined, subjunctive, Kpifcofxac ; optative, KpE[iai[inv ; 
future active, /cpe/iuco, Attic Kpefiu, dc, a, &c. The aorist passive l/c- 
pefidadnv is common to the passive, middle, and intransitive ; but the 
future passive KpEfiaa6?jao/j,ac belongs only to Kpefiavvv/mt, since Kpefia* 
fiai has a peculiar future, Kpe^cro/jiac, " 7 sAa// hang," " hover." 

Ktsivcj, " 7 fo'W," root KTE, and, by changing the vowel, KTA ; fu- 
ture, ktevC), Ionic Kraveo) ; first aorist, ekteivcl ; second aorist, enravov, 
besides epic ektov, ac, a (formed according to the conjugation in p, as, 
fdpav, from didpdoicu) ; third person plural, e/crav for enraaav ; sub- 
junctive, /crw ; infinitive, /cravat, Krd/ievai, icrdfiev ; participle, /crac ; 
perfect, Enraaa ; perfect middle, eKTova ; first aorist passive, ektuOtjv or 
EKTavdnv, besides the poetic form EKrafinv as passive to the second ao- 
rist EKrav. 

Kvvio), " 7 Am," future, nvvqaoficu or (from KTS2) /cww ; first aorist, 
l/cwaa. 



Aay^avw, " I receive by lot" or "fate," root AAXS2 and AHXG, fu- 
ture, ArjS-ojiaL ; second aorist, eAa^ov ; perfect, el/l^a or AiAoy^a (some- 
times called a perfect middle), as from AErX£2. 

Aafitdvu, " I take," root AABG and AHBS2, future, A-fjipofcai ; seeond 
aorist, eAaSov ; perfect, eiAn^a ; perfect passive, elArjfifiat ; first aorist 
passive, EtArj^dnv ; second aorist middle, eXa66/j.nv. Tl e Ionians form 
AeAdhnKa, and, from AAMBft, the future Adppofiai, first aorist passive 
kAdu<j>8nv, perfect passive AiAa/nfiai, first aorist middle k/M^ipdunv. 

Aavddvu, more rarely Arjda, " I am concealed," future, Atjou ; second 
aorist, eAadov ; perfect middle, AeAnda. Middle, ?,av6dvo/j.at, more 
rarely Aqdofiai, " 7 forget," future, ArjoofjiaL ; second aorist, kAado/zrjv ; 
perfect passive, AeAna/mc. 



184 CATALOGUE OF 

Acinic) or Aac/co), "I resound, 1 ' second aorist, ekaaov ; future, haKJj- 
oouai ; perfect, M'AdKa and XiXijua. 

Aiyo) : 1. "J say," forms no perfect active in this signification, but 
uses instead of it ElprjKa (see elpo), otherwise wholly regular ; future, 
2,e^u ; first aorist, sTietja ; perfect passive, "keleyjxat ; first aorist passive, 
k?Jx6vv. 2. " / gather," future, M&, &c. ; perfect, elloxa ; perfect 
passive, sllEyjiai ; second aorist passive, EkLynv ; second future passive, 
Tieyrjaojiat,. 3. Middle, " / lay myself down," future, ke^ojxaL ; first 
aorist, eXe^u^v ; third person singular, second aorist, Mkto, without a 
connecting vowel. Aca?ieyofiai,, "I converse," perfect, disLkeyjiaL ; 
first aorist, dielsx^v- Hence it unites in itself the forms given under 
1 and 2. 

AHB&, see Aa/n6dvoi. 

AtjOg), see Aavddvu. 

AHXS2, see Aayx&vo. 

Aovo), " / wash." In this verb the Attics almost invariably contract 
the connecting vowel of the termination with the ov ; as, eXov, third 
person singular of the imperfect ; elovpev, first person plural. Present 
passive, Xov/xai, &c. ; infinitive, lovcdai. 



*Mmofiat, see MAft. 

MAKfl, " I bleat," From this obsolete primitive form there remain 
only the second aorist EftaKov, and the perfect fie^ica, participle /uep- 
uKvla, which are associated with the common present firjKdofiat. 

MavddvG), " I learn," from MA0£2, second aorist, spadov ; future, 
uadrjaofjiai ; perfect, jj,Ep,d8rjKa. 

*Mdpva/j.ai,, " I fight," usual only in the present and imperfect ; op- 
tative, fj.apvoijjirjv. 

Mdxofiac, " I fight," future, fiaxEOOjiai and fzaxfoopat,, Attic fiaxov- 
pai ; first aorist, e/Ltaxeadp:?]v ; perfect, /us/iaxec/Liac and [iefidxrjfjuii. 

*MA£2, an obsolete primitive form, signifying, 1. " I desire," " strive," 
and has in this signification only the perfect, fie/uaa ; first person plural, 
fte/xafiev ; participle, [lEfiaue ; genitive, -otoc and uroc ; third person 
plural pluperfect, pEfxaoav. 2. "I taste" "feel," in which the present 
fialofiai is usual ; future, fidaofxai ; first aorist, k/uacdjunv. 

*Mstpofj,ai, " I obtain," from the root MEPfi, perfect middle, s/xfiopa; 
perfect passive, El^ap\iai. Hence elfiaprai, " it is ordained by fate." 

MeAAw, " I am about," "am to come," imperfect, tjjxeTJ.ov, with the 
temporal augment ; future, jXETiXfjao, &c. 

MeAq, " I concern," "give concern to," " lie at the heart of," is mostly 
used in the active form only, as an impersonal, \ieKu ; future, fieA^aei, 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERES. 185 

&c. ; perfect epic, fiEfiTjls ; middle, /xeTiofiai, " I am concerned;" future, 
iukriaojiai ; first aorist, EfisTirjdvv . 

Mefj.6?MKa, see MOAS2. 

Mevu, " I remain," perfect, fisfisvyica. ; perfect middle, fzsfiova. 

MiyvvfiL, also /xlcryu, " I mix," future, pfcj ; first aorist, efii^a ; per- 
fect passive, fiEfuy/nai ; first aorist passive, e/j,lx6i?v ; second aorist pas 
sive, k/xlynv. 

M.i{iv7Jcnca), " J remind," from MNAfi, future, [ivrjao, &c. Middle, 
fit/Livr/aKo/xai, " I remember," " mention;" first aorist, kfivqcrdrjv ; future, 
livnadrjcoiiat ; perfect, fie/ivn/iai, " J am mindful of," " think of" "re- 
member ;" subjunctive, fiefivcdfiai ; optative, fxe/nvy/Linv and fiEfivuy-rjv ; 
to which is joined the third future passive, fiefivrjaoficu, " I shall ever 
bear in mind." 

*MOA£2, " I go," future, fio2,ov/j.ai ; second aorist, efioXov ; perfect, 
fiifiSTiCJKa (formed from MOAS2 by a transposition of the radical letters, 
therefore properly pefiXoica, and by the insertion of (3). The usual pres- 
ent thereto is (SXugkcj. 

*MvKuofiai, " i" bellow," second aorist, ejivkov ; perfect, jie^vna ; 
from MYKft. 

N. 

*Nai«, " J dwell," future, vaaaofiai ; first aorist middle, evaffcdfiijv \ 
first aorist passive, evdaOnv ; perfect passive, vevaapat. The first ao- 
rist active, evaeaa, has the transitive signification, " I bring into a 
dwelling." 

Nacrcrw, " / stuff," future, vd^u ; first aorist, evat-a ; perfect passive, 
VEvacjiaL. 

'Ne/xu, " I distribute," future, vefiu and vEfi?jac) ; first aorist, eveifia \ 
perfect, vevEfinna ; first aorist passive, evEfirjdnv and eve/xeOvv. 

New, " I swim," future, vEvaoLiat and VEvaovfiai ; first aorist, Evevoa, 
&c. 

Ni£w, " J wash," borrows its tenses from vltttu, future, viipu, &c. 

O. 

r O£w, " I smell" " emit an odour," future, b&co ; perfect middle, 
56u6a, with the reduplication, and a present meaning. 

Olyo) and olyvvfii, usually dvoiyvviii, " I open," imperfect, dviuyov ; 
first aorist, dveu^a ; infinitive, dvott-ai ; perfect, dv£0)x a 5 perfect mid- 
dle, dvsuya. with an intransitive signification, " J stand open." Epic 
writers generally use only the temporal, not the syllabic, augment, and 
o) is then changed into ul ; thus, first aorist, &'i%a t 

Olda) see Etdv. 

Q2 



186 CATALOGUE OP 

Olofiat or oifiat., " I think" second person, olei ; imperfect, obfinv 
also 6/nnv ; future, olrJGOfiat, ; first aorist, urjOvv ; infinitive, olndijvai. 
Epic writers lengthen the diphthong, and say btofiac, or, with an active 
form, btcj, and form the remaining tenses to it regularly ; as, first aorist 
middle, tocGa/nnv ; first aorist passive, utcdnv. 

OlxofJ-ai, " I depart" or " am gone" future, olxv^ofiat ; perfect, &XW- 
fiat ; or, in an active form with w, olxcjaa. 

OIQ, see oto/xat and <j)epu. 

'OXicdaivu or bliG&dvu, " I slide" future, oXio&tjgu ; second aorist, 
&Xig6ov. 

"OXXvfii, " I destroy" from OAS2, future, oMgco, Attic bXu> ; first ao- 
rist, ukeca ; perfect, blulsna. Middle, 61Xv/nac, " i" perish ;" future, 
olovftac ; second aorist, ulo/ivv. The perfect middle o/lw2a has the 
reduplication. 

"Oftvvfti, " J swear," future, bfiovfiat ; first aorist, ufiooa ; perfect, 
bfxu/iona ; perfect passive, bfiupocfiat, but in the third person also 6^6- 
y«ora£. 

'OjibpyvvfiL, " i" wipe q/f," future, bfiSp^a, &c. 

'Ovivvfj-L, " J am of use," forms the present and imperfect like cgtv/ic, 
but the remaining tenses from the primitive ONAS2 ; future, bvrjou ; first 
aorist, uvnGa. Middle, bviva/Ltat,, " J have advantage ;" second aorist, 
avd/nnv, epic and Ionic tovrj/unv ; optative, bvai/x7]v ; infinitive, ovacdac. 

*"Ovo[iab, " I revile," present and imperfect like dido/nai, the rest from 
QNO£2 ; future, bvoaojxai ; first aorist, cjvoad/xnv ; first aorist passive, 
ovoadrjv. 

'OIIS2, "I see" perfect, oiroTra ; future, bipofiai ; first aorist passive, 
hfydnv (with an active as well as a passive signification) ; perfect passive, 
u/ifiai ; future, b(j>6ijG0fj.ac. 

'Opdo, " I see," imperfect, eupcov, Ionic tipov ; perfect, kupana ; per- 
fect passive, supaftac ; first aorist passive, iupddnv. All the remaining 
forms are wanting to this verb, and are supplied by those given under 
Oil £2 and eldo. 

"Opvvju, " I excite," from OP£2, future, opcru ; first aorist, wpcra ; 
second aorist, upopov, with the reduplication. Middle, opvvpai, " I 
arise ;" second aorist, upbfinv, or, by rejecting the connecting vowel, 
&p[inv ; second person, upcro ; imperative, bpaeo or bpao ; perfect, bpu- 
pefiai ; perfect middle, opupa. 

■ 'Oa(ppaivo[iai, " I smell" future, ba^prjaojiai ; second aorist, 6)G<j>p6- 
p.nv, also ba(f>pdfi,7]v. 

'0<peiA«, " I am indebted," " am obliged," " ought," future, bcpeil^Gu, 
&c. The second aorist oxj)E?iov is used merely to designate a wish, " oA 
Jto /" " woWd ^Aaf /" and the more usual present is b<p?UGicdvu ; future, 
b^krjGd, &c. 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS 187 

n. 

IIA9G, see ILdaxo. 

Haifa, " I jest,'''' future, Trait-ofiai and 7rac^ovp.ai ; first aorist, irtaiaa ; 
perfect, "KEnama ; perfect passive, Trencucfiat and TreTratyfiai. 

Uaccj, "1 strike," future, usually TTcurjou, but the remaining tenses 
regular ; first aorist, erracaa ; perfect, itmaina ; first aorist passive, 
eTTaiodrjv. 

ILdaxcD, " 1" suffer," from ITA0O, second aorist, EiraOov. Perfect 
middle, ireTtovda, from HEN0&. The form nsirnda for the perfect, 
£7T7](ja for the first aorist, and 7vfjGop.ai for the future, are more rare, and 
are proper to the poetic language alone. A peculiar Homeric form is 
KETcoade, as second person plural of the perfect. 

Tlefflo, " I persuade," proceeds regularly in the active, but forms, be- 
sides the first aorist etteiccl, a second aorist, eiudov (with the epic re- 
duplication ttetuOov), and likewise an epic future, ttetciOtigo. Passive 
and middle, nEidoyac, the latter voice with the meaning, "7 believe," 
" folloic," "obey;" second aorist middle, E7u66p.nv, with reduplication 
'KBindofirjv ; perfect middle, TCEirotda, " i" trust." 

U£?m&, " I make to approach," " bring near," regular up to the epic 
forms of the second aorist, ETT^rip-vv (as middle, according to the conju- 
gation in fii), and the first aorist passive, TteT^dadnv. 

Jle7TpuTat, see IIOPS2. 

Uetttcj, see ILeggcj. 

*ILep6cj, " i" lay waste," second aorist, Inpadov, by transposition of 
the radical letters, from eirapdov. 

ILeggcj, %etctu, " I boil," future, tteijjo, &c, from ttetttco. 

Uegelv, see ttitttco. 

TlETavvvju, " I spread," future, irErdao), Attic ttetco ; perfect passive, 
iZETTTafiaL (for TXETTETaafiai) ; first aorist passive, ettetugO^v. 

~n.EToy.ai, " I fly." From this primitive form, by syncope, we have 
the second aorist ETrrofinv, infinitive TCTiaQat, future irETTjcoyaL (usual 
form TZTrjoofiai). According to the conjugation in jjli are formed the 
present, 7VETap.ac and IrrTafiac ; first aorist, ETtTdfinv ; second aorist, 
k'KTriv ; infinitive, TTTijvac ; participle, 7rrdc ; perfect, 7rsiTT7}Ka. Be- 
sides these, epic writers use the lengthened forms Ttordopat, Trurdofiai, 
and also TroTEoyac, the tenses of which are formed regularly ; as, perfect, 
7T£7r6r?7/-/ai, &c. 

IIETQ, see Uiwru. 

TlEvdofzac, see ~W.vvBdvop.ai. 

Hfjyvvfu, " I fix," future, nr/t-G), &c. ; first aorist passive, Eirrjxdfiv ; 
second aorist passive, kizdynv ; perfect middle, neTvrjya, " I stand fast " 



188 CATALOGUE OF 

TLl/j,7r?i7j/ii, " / fill," infinitive, iri/nrldvcu, formed by reduplication 
from the root TLAAQ, wherein p. is inserted to strengthen the syllable. 
This is frequently rejected by the poets, and also in prose, when in com- 
position an additional p, happens to stand immediately before the redu- 
plication (as, for example, kfnriirlinpi). Future, rcTirjao), &c. ; perfect 
passive, TTE.7v7ivGp.ai ; first aorist, kirTiTJadrjv. Besides these are to be ob- 
served an epic second aorist middle, k^rjprjv or Trlf/pnv ; optative, 
TrTiEipnv, with an intransitive signification, " I am full," and a perfect 
middle, TTETz'krjda, likewise with an intransitive present signification, and 
derived from an accessory form irX^doi, which is also not unusual as a 
present. 

TUpaxptipi, " I set on fire," infinitive, TUfiTrpuvat, proceeds in the pres- 
ent and imperfect like loTnp.1 ; the remaining forms are from HPAft or 
•xprjdci ; thus, future, Tzp^GG), &c. ; first aorist passive, kirprjodriv. Here, 
also, the p. inserted to strengthen the syllable is omitted when an addi- 
tional n stands immediately before the reduplication ; as, kfiTriirpq/u. 

Hivo, " I drink," from Illft, future, iriofiai ; second aorist, ettlov ; 
infinitive, tueZv, &c. ; imperative, irlQi. All the rest are formed from 
HOQ, ; perfect, TtETTUKa ; perfect passive, 7XE7iop,ai ; first aorist passive, 
kirodnv ; future passive, Trodr/Go/xat,. The forms ttlgg), ernaa, have the 
transitive signification, " to give to drink" to which ttcttigko) is usual as 
a present. 

TinrpucKQ, " I sell" from Trspdo, future, TrepaGO) ; first aorist, etce- 
paaa. Then from IIPAfi, perfect, TCETrpdKa ; perfect passive, TXEizpd- 
fiac ; first aorist passive, kirpudnv ; third future passive, irsirpucrofiaL. 

H'l-ktu, " I fall," forms from IIETi2 the future, rrEGOvfiat ; second 
aorist, etcegov ; and from IITOS2 the perfect, TTSTTToica. 

Illfl, see Ulvcj. 

TDm&, " I cause to wander" "drive about," future, 7r/layf«, &c. 

IIAAS2, TcTiTjdu, see Ui/nrXvfii. 

H2,ecj, " / sail," future active, ttXevgo ; future middle, nhevGouai 
and TrTiEVGovpac ; first aorist active, ETzhtvca, &c. ; perfect passive, 
TTETrTiEvafiai ; first aorist passive, ETrTisvGdnv. 

IHtjggc), " I strike," future, txItj^u, &c. ; second aorist passive, ett- 
%r]yrjv, but in the compounds ETcTidynv. An epic form is the second ao- 
rist active, TriirTivyov, with the reduplication. 

JL16o), an Ionic accessory form of ttIeu, whence a second aorist, sir- 
/lew, according to the conjugation in pa ; participle, 7r2,6g. 

Hvecj, " I breathe," future, ttvevgo or TrvEVGovpat, &c. ; first aorist 
passive, etcvevg6j]v ; perfect passive, *'rr£irvvftai,, " I possess spirit," 
"am wise." 

Hodeo, " 1 l&ig for" future, txqQ-ijxkj and irodeoQ, usually Tro&eaofiOi ; 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 189 

perfect, TreirodnKa ; perfect passive, Tceirodnfj.ai ; first aorist passive, 



Uopecv, l-xopov, " I gave," a defective second aorist with the poets. 
To the same theme (in the sense of " to distribute") belongs the perfect 
passive TreirpoTaL, " it is ordained by fate ;" participle, 7re7Tpu/j,evog. 

IIOO, see Utvcj. 

U.POO, see Uopslv. 

IITA£2, see Heravvviic, Uerofxat. 

ILrfjGau, " I cower down" future, ttt^u, and the remaining forms 
regular ; perfect participle, ttetttvuc. 

IITOS2, see ILVro. 

Hvvddvofiac, " / learn," from TTEvdo/iai (poetic), future, nevaofiac ; 
second aorist, envdofiriv ; perfect, 7T£7rv(7fiat. 



Te£b, " I do," future, pefw, or, from EPrft, future, epfw, &c. ; per- 
fect middle, eopya. 

Tew, " Iflow," future, pevaci ; future middle, pevaofiai ; first aorist 
active, l^Evaa. In the same signification, however, the second aorist 
kpp'vnv (formed according to the conjugation fit, from a root TTES2), 
with the future ^vijao/xac and perfect kfipvnica, is more usual. 

Tew, " I say," see Eipw. 

'Pqyvvfit, " I rend," future, /5#|w, &c. ; second aorist passive, ep^6d- 
yrjv ; perfect middle, epjbuya, with an intransitive signification, " I am 
rent." 

'Pcyeo, " I shudder," future, p'tyrjau, &c. ; perfect middle, *epp'Zya. 

TiVrcj and piTrrew, " I throw," both forms usual in the present and 
imperfect ; all the rest from the first only ; future, p7i/>w, &c. ; second 
aorist passive, kppitynv. 

Tvew, see Tew. 

'Puvvvfic, " / strengthen," future, p~uou, &c. ; perfect passive, ep^wa- 
fiai ; imperative, k'pp'uco, "farewell ;" first aorist passive, k^ucOnv. 

2. 

'ZaXirifa, " I sound a trumpet," future, aaliriy^u, &c. 

2l3evvvfj.t, " I extinguish," future, cdeau, &c. ; perfect passive, e<r- 
Beofiat. ; first aorist passive, kaSeadnv. The perfect eoBnua, and the sec- 
ond aorist eaSnv, infinitive a6fjvac, have the intransitive signification, 
" to be extinguished," like the passive. 

*2evw, " I put in motion," first aorist, ecoeva, formed without a ; and, 
by doubling the a in annexing the augment, perfect passive, ecavfiai ; 
first aorist passive, haavdrjv. 



190 CATALOGUE OF 

HKsdavvvfti, " I scatter" future, (weddcrcj, Attic G/cedfi, &c. ; perfect 
passive, ea/cedacr/LiaL. 

2/ceXlw, " I dry up," first aorist, ianrfka (an epic form, as from a root 
2KAA£2). Middle, c/ceAAo/zai, " I am dried up ;" future, G/cXyGopai. 
To these, on account of a signification likewise intransitive, the active 
forms, perfect eoKlr]Ka and second aorist egkXtjv, infinitive CKlyvai 
(formed according to the conjugation in fit), also belong. 

2/zaw, " I smear" second person, c/xyg, &c. ; infinitive, cjuyv ; fu- 
ture, a/j.7J(T0), &c. ; first aorist passive, ka[i7jx6rjv } from op^o. 

Stcscv, GTreadai, see "~Etcg). 

liTrevdo, " I make a libation," future, gtceigo ; first aorist, eairsKra ; 
perfect, eGrrsiKa ; perfect passive, eairecafzai, ; first aorist passive, hoix- 



I,repeo), " I deprive," proceeds regularly, but in the passive is the 
more simple form arepofxac, to which a second aorist hoTsprjv, participle 
CTspeig, and future GTeprjGOfiai belong. 

Sropevvvfit, GTopvvfii, and Grpuvvvfii, " I spread," future, CTopeca) 
and crpuau ; first aorist, hcTopeaa and Earpuaa ; perfect, sarpuica ; 
perfect passive, eGrpojiac, more rarely eGTopnfiat ; first aorist passive, 
kraopEGdrjv and eGTpudrjv. 

*2iTvyio, " / abhor," " I hate," future, GTvyrjGO, &c. The second 
aorist egtv/ov is formed from a root 2TTri2, as also a first aorist, Ig- 
rvt-a, with a transitive signification, " I make to shudder." 

2;££a>, see "E^w. 

2w£b> " I save," future, gugcj ; perfect passive, GeGUG/iaL ; but first 
aorist passive, eGudnv. 

T. 

Taldo, " I endure," used only in the first aorist, hrdXaGa, epic erdl- 
aGGa. The perfect, tetIvkci (in the plural, by syncope, rerXa^ev) ; im- 
perative, rerladc ; infinitive, tetIuvcu, epic rerXdfiev ; future, t%t)go- 
jiai, and second aorist, er^v (according to the conjugation in fie) ; in- 
finitive, r'krjvai ; imperative, t>1^0a ; optative, rlainv ; participle, t?m£. 

TA<5£2, see Qdizru. 

TAG, see Tm>6). 

Teivo), " J stretch," future, revti ; first aorist, eretva. From the rad- 
ical form TE come the perfect Tirana, perfect passive rera/iac, first ao- 
rist passive bradr/v, future Tad?]GO/j,ai. 

TEKS2, seeTkrw. 

Ttyvu, " I cut," forms from TEMS2 the future re/zd>, second aorist 
Itb\lov, perfect Ter/inKa, perfect passive Terfiri/xai, first aorist passive 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 191 

krfi^dnv. In Ionic this verb is rdfivc), from which comes the second 
aorist sra^ov, a form used also with the Attics. 

*Terayuv, " reaching" " seizing," a second aorist participle, from 
the same root with retvu. 

Tet^w. In this form two kindred verbs must be accurately distin- 



1. Tevxu, " I make," "fabricate," regular future, revijo) ; first 
aorist, erevtja ; perfect, rirevxa ; perfect passive, rsrvyfiai ; 
first aorist passive, krvxonv. Epic forms of the second aorist 
are tztvkov, active, and tctvk6(ivv, middle, both by redupli- 
cation. 

2. Tvyxavo, "I happen," "acquire," future, rev^ofcac ; second 
aorist, ervxov ; perfect, rzrvxnKa. 

Tlktg), " I bring forth," from TEKS2, future, ref« ; future middle, 
re^ofxat ; second aorist, ctekov ; perfect, tstoko,. 

Tirpdo, "I bore," from TPAO, future, Tpfjoo, &c. An accessory 
form more usual with the Attics is Ttrpaivo), to which belong the future 
Ttrpavti and the first aorist krirpnva. The perfect always from the rad- 
ical form, TeTpnua ; perfect passive, rerpvpiaL. 

TiTpcoaKo, " I wound," epic rpuu, future, rpioau, &c. ; perfect pas- 
sive, rerpouac ; first aorist passive, krpudnv ; future, rpudrjcroficu, and 
also rp^ao/xat, with the form of the middle, but the signification of the 
passive. 

Tco), " / honour," is merely poetical, and forms regularly the future, 
Ticro, &c. ; perfect passive, rental. At the same time, however, it 
furnishes the derivative tenses also to 

Tivco, " I pay," " atone for," future, tlgo ; perfect passive, t£t~ 
iGfiai ; first aorist passive, kriadnv. The middle rivojiat, fu- 
ture ricro/icu, first aorist hrLodjivv, has the signification, " to re- 
venge" "punish." 

TAHMI, radical form assumed for the formation of some tenses of 
ra/lacj, which see. 

Tpfyo, " I nourish," future, -frpifu ; perfect middle, rerpo^a ; per- 
fect passive, redpafifiaL ; infinitive, redpdQdcu ; second aorist passive, 
krpdipnv ; more rarely, first aorist passive, kdpiQdnv. 

Tpe^cj, " I run," future, ■&pet;u ; future middle, dpegofiai ; first ao- 
rist active, edpe^a. More usually, from APEMft, second aorist, etJpa- 
fiov ; future, Spafiovfzat ; perfect active, deSpdfinna ; perfect middle, 



Tp6yo, " I eat," future, rput-oficu ; Second aorist, frpayov, from 

tpatq. 

Tvyxdvo, see Tet^w. 



192 CATALOGUE OF 

Tvttto), " I strike," has commonly, with the Attics, future, tvkttjgu ; 
second aorist passive, krvirvv. 

Tv(j>o), " I fumigate," " burn," future, dvipo) ; second aorist passive, 

STVipnv. 

T. 

^YTTiaxveofiat, see under "E^cj. 



$dya, see "Ecu. 

Qaivo, " J ctzttse fo appear," future, 0ax>w ; first aorist, eiprjva ; sec- 
ond aorist, efyavov ; perfect middle, irefyrjva ; perfect passive, iri^ac/nac ; 
first aorist passive, stydvdnv ; second aorist passive, kcpdvnv ; second fu- 
ture passive, (pavqco/iai. The passive has an intransitive signification, 
" I appear," which properly belongs to the middle. 

Qeido/zai, " I spare," future, <j>eioo[/,cu, &c. Epic forms are, perfect, 
•KE$idv[iai, usual form irEtpECGfiai. ; third future, ne<j>id7}GO{icu, in the sig- 
nification of the simple future ; second aorist, ■7re<pid6(j.nv, by reduplica- 
tion. 

4>ep«, " I bear," imperfect, e<j>epov ; present passive, fepopai ; imper- 
fect, k<f>Ep6p.?]v. All the other tenses are formed partly from OI£2, partly 
torn ENErK£2. Thus, future, oIgu ; first aorist, rjveyKa (Ionic ?jv- 
eiKa) ; second aorist, r/vsytcov ; perfect, bvfjvoxa ; perfect passive, evtjv- 
eyfiai (Ionic evrjveiy/iai) ; first aorist passive, ijvExdnv (Ionic qvEixOnv) ; 
future, kvexOvcofiac and oiodrjcofiai ; future middle, olaofiai ; first aorist 
middle, qveyfcdfAnv. In epic, several other forms are derived from Olfi, 
besides these adduced ; as, imperative of the aorist, oIge, o'cgeto, &c. ; 
subjunctive of the aorist, third person singular, oIgij. 

$6dvo), " I am beforehand," " anticipate," forms from $6A£2, future, 
<pd?]Ga) ; future middle, tydrjGOjiai ; first aorist active, etydaaa ; second 
aorist, efidnv ; subjunctive, <pd£j ; optative, (pdainv, &c. ; perfect, tydaica. 

$v(o, " I beget," future, Qvgcd ; first aorist, efvaa ; middle, <pvofzai, 
"I arise," "am born," &c. ; perfect active, Ttifyvna, " J am Z?y wa- 
ture ;" second aorist, e0w, " I am," &c. 

X. 

Xaipu, " 7 rejoice," future, x aL PV^^ \ future middle, x ai PV< yo l Jl ' (U > & 
epic also KexaprjGO) and KExapr]GOfj,aL ; second aorist, kxdpnv (according 
to the conjugation in /«) ; subjunctive, ;£<Z0w ; optative, x a ? £ ' l7 l v i & c - 
Besides these are to be observed the forms of the aorist : kxaipnGa 
with later writers ; kxvpdfivv and Ksxap6/j.nv in epic. Perfect active, 
KExdpvm ; perfect passive, nexdpnuai, poetic Kfyapiiai. 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 193 

Xi&, " I stool," future, ^effw, more usual than x eao ^^ aL '■> perfect 
middle, KexoSa. 

Xeu, " 1 ■pour," future, x £ vgu ; first aorist, e^ea, epic £%Eva (formed 
without the characteristic of the tense, by merely annexing the termina- 
tion) ; infinitive of the first aorist, x^ aL '■> imperative, %zov, ^ecrw, &c. ; 
perfect, Kexvica ; perfect passive, nexvucu ; first aorist passive, exvdrjv, 
&c. 

Xpdu. Of this verb must be distinguished five different forms of in- 
flection, with their significations. 

1. Xpdo, " i" give a response," proceeds regularly ; infinitive, 
XP$v; future, xPV au i & c - 5 first aorist passive, hxprjodnv. 

2. Kixpvfu, " / lend," proceeds like ccrn/it (yet without a sec- 
ond aorist) ; future, xpfou '■> fi rst aorist, l£p?/<7a, &c. ; middle, 
Kixpafiai, " I borrow ;" future, ^p^cro^a*. '■> fi rst aorist, hxptj- 
adfj-vv. 

3. Xpdouac, " I use," takes rj instead of a in contraction ; sec- 
ond person, xPVi & c - > infinitive, xPV a ^aL > future, xp^ ^ - 1 - '•> 
first aorist, kxpvvdfinv ; perfect, Kexpv^i (usually in the sig- 
nification, " I want"). It is remarkable that the Ionians, when 
they contract, take a here as the mingled sound ; thus, infini- 
tive, Ionic xpdodat. Generally, however, instead of xpdofiac, 
they use the form XP^ ! 10 - 1 ^ which is regularly conjugated 
throughout ; they also change o after e into o ; as, xP^vtcli. 

4. Xptj, " it is incumbent," " one ought," &c, infinitive, xPV vai » 
optative, xP eL7 1 > subjunctive, XPV '■> participle, XP^ CJV > imper- 
fect, expf/v or XPV V > never expv ; future, x?^ Gtl - 

5. 'Attoxpv, "it i s sufficient," third person plural, aTvoxpuac ; in- 
finitive, aTToxprjv ; participle, diroxptiv, daa, tiv ; imperfect, 
aTrixpv ; future, aTZoxprjoei. Here also the Ionians usually 
take a instead of rj ; as, imperfect, cnrsxpa. 

Xpuvvvfzc, " I colour," future, XP&™i &c. ; perfect passive, nixpuG- 
fiat ; first aorist passive, kxpuodnv. 

Xuvvvai, " I heap up," " dam." The radical form ^6w is usual as a 
present with the older writers. To this belong the infinitive, x°vv ; fu- 
ture, x^ acj i & c - > P ei "f ect passive, KexcoGfiat ; first aorist passive, ££w<7 



£2. 
'Qdeo), " I push," imperfect, eudovv ; future, lodrjaa and &oto ; first 
aorist, iuaa ; perfect, ew/ca ; perfect passive, ecjofiat ; first aorist pas- 
sive, tuoBnv ; all from the radical form '00 fi. 
R 



194 PARTICLES. 

XXVI. PARTICLES. 
The Particles are Adverbs, Conjunctions, and Preposi- 
tions, the Interjections being ranked in Greek under Ad- 
verbs. 

ADVERBS. 

1 . The most usual termination of an adverb is in wr. 

2. If the adjective from which the adverb is derived be 
one that ends in og, the adverb is formed by merely ap- 
pending the termination og to the root as indicated by the 
nominative. Thus, from oo(p6g (root oocp), we have oocptig ; 
from naXog (root tcaX), ftaXtig ; from icaipiog (root Kaipi), 

KatpiG)£, &c. 

3. In the case of other adjectives the root will be rec- 
ognised most clearly in the genitive ; and to the root thus 
found the termination og is in like manner annexed. Thus, 
from \iiyag (root fieyaX), we have fieydXog ; from %apizig 
(root x a P ieVT ), %api£vTog ; from aXrjdrjg (root dXr}de), dXr\- 
decog, contracted dXrjdog, &c. 

4. In many cases the adverb has no particular form, but 
is expressed by some part of an adjective. Thus : 

1. The neuter of the adjective, singular and plural, 
is used for an adverb chiefly by the poets ; as, Ka- 
Xbv detdeiv, " to sing beautifully ;" (Spa^ea dieX- 
6elv, " to recount briefly" 

2. In like manner, also, the dative singular femi- 
nine occurs instead of an adverb ; as, &r\[iooia, 
" publicly ;" Id la, "privately;" fcoiv^j, "in com- 
mon ;" 7T£^7, " on foot ;" ravr'q, " thus" " in this 
manner" &c. But, strictly speaking, in such con- 
structions a substantive is always to be supplied, 
usually odo. 

5. Adverbs are also formed from substantives, and that 
in various ways. Thus : 



ADVERBS. 195 

1. Certain forms of substantives are used in the 
signification of adverbs ; as, apxrjv (in the begin- 
ning), " entirely ;" aK\ir\v (at the point), " scarce ,*" 
KOfiidq (with diligence), " very much ;" arrovd'-q 
(with zeal or pains), " with trouble or difficulty" 
"scarce," "hardly" In all these, and others of 
the kind, there is an ellipsis of a preposition. 

2. Some substantives furnish an adverbial sense 
when combined into one word with prepositions. 
Thus, napaxp^l^a (with the thing), " immediately ;" 
npovpyov (irpb epyov, for the thing, to the pur- 
pose), " serving the purpose,"" " serviceable" u re- 
quisite" " useful ;" enrrodcjv (from before the feet), 
" out of the way" " aside " e[i7Todu)V, " in the 
way" " impeding." 

3. Adverbs are derived from substantives by annex- 
ing certain syllables. Thus, the terminations 6a, 
6i, oi, gi, %r\, and %ov, signify " in a place ;" the 
terminations 6e and 6ev, "from a place ;" and de, 
ere, ^e, 1 " to a place ;" as, 

evravda ........ here. 

ovpavodi in heaven. 

oIkol at home. 

'A6fjV7]Gi, at Athens. 

™ v ™ X r, > everywhere. 

navraxov S 

aXkaxpv elsewhere, 

ovpavodev ) r , 

, r \ from heaven. 

ovpavode > 

OL/codev from home. 



1. The termination £e is nothing more than ads, the double letter be- 
ing put for the c<5. This change, however, occurs merely in some names 
of places, and in a few other words ; such as, -&vpa£e, for tivpaode, " to 
the door" " out." 



196 ADVERBS. 

ovpavovSs ) ' i 

, r } to heaven. 

ovpavoae S 

Qr]6a£e . to Thebes. 

Adfjva^e to Athens. 

4. Adverbs are also formed from substantives by an 
nexing the syllables 66v and ioti, and those thus 
produced express comparison ; as, (3orpv66v, " clus- 
ter-wise ;" icvv7]66v, " after the manner of dogs ;" 
'EXX^vcarl, " after the manner of the Greeks ;" 
dvdpiori, " after the manner of men.'''' 

5. Adverbs derived from substantives sometimes end 
in dSrjv, and then denote that something takes 
place by the application of the idea which is con- 
tained in the substantive ; as, XoydSrjv (from X6- 
yog), " by selection ;" d[^6oXd67]v (from dva6oXrj) y 
" by delay" 

6. Adverbs are also formed from verbs, and have the ter- 
mination in 6?]v, which termination is annexed immediate- 
ly to the root. A preceding soft or aspirate, however, must 
change at the same time into the corresponding middle let- 
ter. Thus we have ftpv6d7)V, from Kpimro) (root Kpv6), " se- 
cretly ;" TcXeyd7]v, from rcXercG) (root ttXek), " in. a twisted 
manner or form ;" ovXXr)6drjv , from ovXXafi6dvG) (root cvX- 
Xr)6), " taken together." 

- 7. Lastly, from some prepositions, also, adverbs are 
formed, which serve to denote place, and which all termi- 
nate in 0) ; as, dvo) (from dvd), " above ;" tcaro), " below >" 
e^o), " without ;" slao), " within ;" npoao), " onward." This 
6) belongs also to some other adverbs ; as, d(pvd), " sudden- 
ly ;" o#tg), " zAms ;" ottlgg), " behind ;" Troppd), "far." 

8. Besides these there are yet many adverbs whose der- 
ivation does not admit of being accurately pointed out, and 
which are partly obsolete adjective forms; as, ttXtjgiov, 
"near;" arjfxepov, " to-day ;" avpiov, " to-morrow ;" dyxov, 



NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 197 

" near ;" b\iov, " at the same time ,*" elfcij, " ira uam ,*" <%?/, 
" in a twofold manner ;" and partly genuine adverbs, with 
the terminations a, ag, t, ei, 01, ov, re ; as, Kapra, " very ;" 
TreXag, " wear ;" fieyaXoyorL, " greatly ;" e/set, " £Aer<? ;" 
7ro£, "whither;" -nors, "when" &c. 

9. Under the head of adverbial particles, the a (before a 
vowel av) must be especially noticed. It is of three kinds : 
1. a privative, which carries with it the force of a nega- 
tion ; as, aootyog, " unwise " avvdpog, "without water " 2. 
a intensive, which strengthens the meaning ; as, a^vXog, 
"much wooded" 3. a denotiong union; as, aXo%og, "a 
consort." 

10. The following also occur frequently in the poets, and 
denote increase, &c. 



apt ; 


as, 


dpiSrjXog, 


very conspicuous. 


pov; 


ti 


(3ov(3pG)GTig, 


voracious. 


ft*; 


u 


(3pir)7TVog, 


shouting aloud. 


da ; 


a 


d&oitiog, 


thickly shaded. 


epi ; 


" 


epi6p£[j,r)g, 


loud roaring. 


$»; 


a 


%&KOTOg, 


furious, 


Xa; 


" 


Xa\ia%og, 


valiant. 


Xi\ 


" 


XiXaio\iai, 


I desire earnestly. 



NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 

1. There are in Greek two simple negative particles, with 
which all other negations are compounded, ov and p,f]. 
The former of these becomes ovk before a vowel that has 
the soft breathing, and ov% before a vowel that is aspirated. 
The Attics, also, for greater emphasis, sometimes write ov%L 

2. From these two negatives, ov and p?, are formed all 
the other modes of negation in Greek ; such as ovde, ovre, 
ovdeig, oirnore, ovizg)ttots, ovdaficog, ovdafiov, fi7]de, p,rjT£ 
firjdeCg, &c. 

3. Although the English language possesses only one ex- 

R2 



198 NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 

pression for both of these particles, yet between the use of 
ov and \ir\ in Greek, a definite and important distinction ob- 
tains. 

4. In general, this distinction is correctly designated by 
saying that ov denies positively and directly, but that \ir], on 
the contrary, denies conditionally or prohibitively. Hence 
ov is used to deny a thing itself ; py, on the contrary, to 
deny the supposition of a thing. 

5. Hereupon is founded the following general rule : ov 
stands as a negative particle in an independent proposition, 
and in all cases, likewise, where an idea is negatived in 
and by itself: p), on the contrary, denies in conditional 
propositions, whether they appear as really dependant, or 
the dependance lies merely in the imagination, as in con- 
ditional and assumed cases. 

6. The following remarks will lead to a right application 
of this rule in single cases. 

1 . A whole and independent proposition, whether 
pronounced as an absolute assertion or as an opin- 
ion and view, or as a question, can be negatived 
only by the particle ov. Thus, ovk ayadbv r\ tto- 
XvKoipavia, " The government of the many is not a 
good thing." Ovk, av ayan&Tjv KaXsloBai amo- 
rog, " / would not like to be called faithless." Tt 
yap ov -ndpsonv ; " Why, then, is he not present ?" 

2. Mr], on the contrary, appears as a negation after 
all particles expressing condition, supposition, and 
intention ; as, si firj opdojg Xsyco, gov epyov eXsy- 
%eiv, " If I do not speak correctly, it is your part 
to prove it" 

3. Mi] is used after relatives, and with participles 
when these likewise express a condition ; as, rig 
6s dovvai dvvarat srspcd a fj,rj avrbg s%si ; " Who 
can give a thing to another, if he has it not himself?" 
Here a ovk avrbg s%si would mean, <; that which 



NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 199 

he has not himself." So, also, 6 fir) tuotsihov, "If 
a person does not believe" But 6 ov marevov, 
" One who does not believe." 

4. M.7) is used with infinitives, whether they be de- 
pendant upon a verb or accompanied by the ar- 
ticle ; as, dvdynr\ tovto fii] nocelv, " It is neces- 
sary not to do this." To [zrj TtEioQr\vai \loi al- 
tlov cot rtiv fcancjv, " Your not being persuaded by 
me is to you the source of these evils." 

-5. Mr] always stands with the imperative, as also 
with the subjunctive when it is used instead of the 
imperative, and with the optative when it indicates 
a wish ; as, p) irpdrre tovto, " Do not do this ;" 
firj tovto dpdcrqg ; and again, ju?) tovto yevoiTO, 
" May this never be." 

6. Every purpose implies a conception in the mind 
of some one or other, and therefore \ir\, not ov, fol- 
lows Iva, on(x)g, b(ppa ; as, SoXcov dnedrjiiTjoe stecl 
Sena Iva dr) \ir\ Tiva tojv v6[jlg)v dvaynaodrj Xvoai, 
TGJvedeTO : " Solon absented himself from home for 
the space of ten years, in order that he may not be 
compelled to rescind any one of the laws which he 
had enacted." 

7. Two negatives generally strengthen the negation, and 
do not destroy each other, as in Latin. 

8. This rule may be expressed more fully as follows : 
When to a sentence already made negative, other qualifica- 
tions of a more general kind are to be added, such as some- 
times, some one, somewhere, &c, these are all commonly sub- 
joined in the form of words compounded with the same 
negative particles ; as, ovk enoirjae tovto ox>6a\iov ovdeic, 
" No one anywhere did this." And in the same manner, to 
the negation of the whole is subjoined the negation of the 
parts ; as, ov dvvarai ovt' ev Xeyeiv, ovt' ev noielv Tovg 
(ptXovg, " He can neither speak well of nor do good to, his 
friends" 



200 NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 

9. In some phrases both the particles ov and \lt] are united ; 
as,ov p/ and \ir\ ov. In this combination, as in all other 
cases, ov denies objectively and \i.r\ subjectively. Hence 
oi) \ii\ implies the idea of no apprehension being entertained 
that a thing will take place ; p) ov, on the contrary, the 
idea of an apprehension being entertained that a thing will 
not take place. Hence are derived the following observa- 
tions : 

1. Ov [j,rj is an intensive and emphatical negation, 
and indicates the imagination of a thing which 
should not and must not take place ; as, ov pi) 
dvopevrjg eay (piXoiq, " That thou wilt not (I expect) 
be ill-inclined towards thy friends ;" that is, " be not 
ill-inclined towards thy friends." And again, aXX* 
ovttot' e£ epov ye pi) padyg rode, " Yet never (must 
thou expect) that thou wouldst learn this from me ;" 
that is, ' ; yet never shouldst thou learn this from me" 

2. Mrj ov, in dependant propositions, when the verb 
of the principal proposition is either accompanied 
by a negation or contains a negative idea in itself, 
destroy each other, and are often to be translated 
by " that." Thus, ovtc apvovpai pr\ ov yeveadat, 
" J do not deny that it has taken place ;" and again, 
, neiQo\iai yap oi) roaovrov ovdev (bore \ir\ ov tcaXtig 
■&avelv, " For I am persuaded that there will nothing 
happen to me so bad but that I shall die nobly." 

3. In independent propositions, on the contrary, \ir\ 
ov is used in combination with the subjunctive to 
express negative assertions with less positiveness 
and strength, and is to be translated by " indeed 
not" "perhaps not" and explained by the addition 
of an omitted verb, as opa, or the like. Thus, dA- 
Xa fii) ovk xf Sidatcrdv 7] dperrj, " But virtue may, 
perhaps, be a thing not to be taught." Literally, 
" But see whether virtue may not be" &c, the verb 
opa being supplied. 



NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 201 

10. Besides the case of p) ov mentioned above, two neg- 
atives also destroy each other when they belong to differ- 
ent verbs ; as, ovdsv sariv on ovk vtteoxsto, " He promised 
everything •" literally, " There is nothing that he did not 
promise." 

11. As compounded with the negation ovk, the particle 
ovkovv may also find a place here. This particle, used by 
the Greeks both in questions and in direct propositions, ad- 
mits of different translations, and is also differently accent- 
ed, being sometimes written ovkovv and sometimes ovkovv. 
The following is to be remarked as essential concerning it. 

1. In interrogative propositions, when the particle 
signifies not therefore ? is it not so ? not 1 it is al- 

, ways to be accented ovkovv, because ovk must 
here be significantly and emphatically heightened. 
Thus, ovkovv ysXog rjdiorog elg eftdpovg yeXav ; 
" Is it not, then, the sweetest laughter to laugh at 
one's enemies ?" 

2. In direct propositions ovkovv is either to be trans- 
lated " therefore not," " yet not" or else it stands 
at the beginning of the proposition as a mere em- 
pl?.atical expression for the simple ovv, and is to 
be translated by " therefore" " consequently ,*" as, 
Gi) rovro enoLTjcag, ovkovv eywye, " thou hast done 
this, therefore not I." In this case the accentua- 
tion is generally given as ovkovv. Strictly con- 
sidered, however, the idea of negation does not 
vanish in ovkovv even where it is to be translated 
by therefore, but the particle is there, also, proper- 
ly an interrogative one. Thus the following sen- 
tence, ovkovv, orav drj firj odevh), Trenavaofxai, 
" Therefore, when I am unable, I shall desist," is 
equivalent to " Is it not so ? when I am unable, J 
shall desist ?" 



202 CONJUNCTIONS. 

CONJUNCTIONS, &c. 

AAAA. 

1. 'Alia is an adversative conjunction, and answers generally to the 
English " but." From this meaning arise others, however, such as, 
"well, then,' 1 '' "therefore" in which case alia is generally elliptical. 
Thus, all' icdi, ore stjei rovd' ovrog- "Well, then, know that this will 
be so." Supply ovk avTiOTrjao), or the like ; "I will not oppose, but, on 
the contrary, know,'''' &c. So, in the following passage of Xenophon, it 
occurs in four different senses, all of which may be traced by means of 
ellipses to the primitive meaning oi " but." 'A1?m fia At', e<pw, ovk av- 
rog eTiKeaOat rcpog ce fiovlofiai, alia oe trpbg e/j,e iropevecdai. 'Alia, 
nopevcofiat, e<j>n, p.6vov virodexov. 'All' vrroSe^ofiai ae, e(j>n- hav firj rtg 
tpilurepa gov evdov y. " ' Nay, indeed,' replied Socrates, ' I do not wish 
to be dragged unto you, but you, to come to me.' ' Well, then,' said The- 
odota, ' I will come ; do you only receive me.' ' Why, I will receive 
you,'' replied Socrates, ' if there be not some one dearer than you within.' " 

2. 'Alia yap. In this combination yap introduces a reason for the 
opposition, &c, expressed by alia. Thus, al?M yap Kpeovra levaGO), 
navGu rove Tzapearurag loyovg. " But I will check what I am at pres- 
ent saying, for I see Creon." Sometimes, however, the reference is 
more latent, and a clause is to be supplied between alia and yap from 
what precedes. Thus, in Plato, Rep. 2, p. 336, we have, alia yap ev 
q.dov dinnv duaopev, where we must repeat from the previous clause, 
ovk a^fjfxioi aTtallu^opiev. " But we shall not escape unharmed, for we 
shall render atonement in Hades." In many instances the reference 
in alia yap is to be supplied by some general remark, such as, " but 
this was not at all surprising, for ;" " but this was impossible, for," &c. 

3. 'All' ovv ye. These particles are often joined together, inasmuch 
as, along with the opposition, a consequence of what has preceded is 
also expressed. Thus, all' ovv tovtov ye rbv xpovov 7/ttov a.7jdijg eao- 
fiac. " Yet (alia) I will, for this reason (ovv), now at least (ye) be less 
disagreeable." 

4. When joined with oi&e it strengthens the sense ; as, all' ovSe 
t:eipaaopai, " Nay, I will not even try." Frequently, in this construc- 
tion, ov [lovov ov is to be supplied in what precedes ; as, in the present 
instance, we may say, " I will not only not do so, but I will not even 
try." 

5. In alia rot the particle rot strengthens the force of alia ; " but, 
indeed," " why, that, indeed" " why, as for that," &c. Thus, all* 
ijdv rot, i( Why % that is a pleasant thing enough" 



CONJUNCTIONS. 203 

AN. 

1. The particle dv, for which the epic writers use k6 or nev, cannot 
well be expressed by any corresponding particle in English, but only 
gives to a sentence an air of uncertainty and mere possibility. It is em- 
ployed, therefore, to modify or strengthen the subjunctive and optative ; 
and is also employed with the indicative, in order to impart to it more 
or less of uncertainty. 

2. This particle commonly stands after one or more words in a clause, 
and is thus distinguished from the dv which is formed by contraction 
from kdv. This latter particle dv usually begins a clause, and has the 
meaning of " if" &c. The Attic prose writers usually change it into 
fjv, the Attic poets always. 

3. The particle kdv, " if" is compounded of the conditional el and 
the av mentioned in the first paragraph. 

4. The av first mentioned is frequently put twice, sometimes even 
thrice, in a clause or sentence. In some cases, where the dv occurs 
twice, one of these particles attaches itself to a finite verb and the other 
to a participle or infinitive ; as, optivreg av kxp^oavro av " If they had, 
seen they would have used." Many cases occur, however, where this 
explanation will not answer, and where the second or repeated dv must 
be regarded as brought in merely to indicate more plainly the idea of 
uncertainty intended to be expressed. Thus, aXka Kdv ev^aivro dv ye- 
viadat- " But they might, perhaps, have wished it to happen." 

APA. 

1. The primary power of dpa is that of deducing consequences from 
premises, and hence it has usually the signification of " therefore." It 
is regularly employed, therefore, in the conclusion of syllogisms ; as, el 
yap elat f3wfioi, elal nal deoi- dXkd [irjv eiai fiu[Aoi- eialv dpa nal -&eoL 
" For if there are altars, there are also gods. But there certainly are 
altars ; therefore there are gods too." When joined with el, el p}], or 

'kdv, it signifies " if, then," " if, indeed," or, more probably, " conse- 
quently." Hence it serves for an emphatic asseveration, as if founded 
on an inference. 

2. Different from this is the adverb dpa, which is an interrogative par- 
ticle, like the Latin num or utrum. Thus, dpa tiardbrfkov b (3ovXo[i<u 
Tieyeiv ; " Is, then, what I wish to say evident ?" When a negative 
answer is expected, it has generally the particle fin attached to it. Thus, 
kdv be cov 7rpooKaTiiyopf/GG), on 6 id to dyaodai avrov, ical evvoiK&c 
l%eic Trpbc avrbv, dpa firj Sia6d?J,eadai 66^eig vvf k/xov ; " But if I 
shall still farther allege against you, that, in consequence of your admi- 



204 CONJUNCTIONS. 

ration of him, you feel also well disposed towards him, will you on that 
account think that you are slandered by me ?" If we wish to express 
the Latin nonne, it is done by dp' ov, and sometimes even by apa alone. 
3. The interrogative apa is placed first in a clause or sentence ; but 
the apa first mentioned stands always after one or several words, and 
even at the close of a proposition. 

TAP. 

1. Tap, "for," never stands at the beginning of a proposition or 
clause, but, instead of it, nal yap is used at the beginning, like etenim in 
Latin. In Greek, the proposition of which that with yap assigns the 
cause is often omitted, inasmuch as it is easily understood, and is passed 
over by the speaker in the vivacity of discourse. Thus, in the answer 
so common in Plato, we have earc yap ovro, " (Certainly) for so it is." 
So it is often used in questions, because an additional member may al- 
ways easily be supposed ; as, for example, " i" know" " J believe," " / 
cannot do it," &c. Thus, Horn. Od. 10, 501, T £2 Kip/cn, ric yap Taxnrjv 
66bv ip/ep-ovevaei ; "Oh Circe (I cannot go thither), for who will guide 
me on this way ?" By the frequency of this kind of interrogative use, 
it gradually lost its proper force, and came to be employed simply to 
strengthen a question, like the Latin nam in quisnam. 

2. In such expressions as nal yap, aXka yap, &c, the former particle 
indicates an omission of something, for which ydp assigns a cause ; and 
heuce teal ydp, when closely translated, means, " and (no wonder,) for" 
" and (this was natural,) for," &c. So in dTCkd ydp, we must say, 
when rendering literally, " but (this was impossible,) for," " but (this 
happened otherwise,) for" &c. The context will always, of course, 
suggest the proper ellipsis. 

IE. 

1. Ye, an enclitic particle, emphatically heightens the word which it 
follows above the rest of the clause, and thus strengthens the idea of the 
same. It is frequently joined to pronouns, particularly personal ones ; 
as, eycoye, " I, at least," " I, for my part." It is often, too, put in com- 
bination with other particles, from which it usually stands separated by 
one or more words ; as, ye drj, " really," " certainly ;" ye toi, " at 
least" " however." 

2. Generally, also, ye is used in rejoinders and answers, either to 
confirm or restrict ; and likewise in exhortations, to render them more 
impressive. But in English it often happens that the sense of ye, in its 
various combinations, can only be indicated by heightening the tone of 
the word to which it refers. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 205 

AE. 

1. The particle 6e is always placed after one or more words in a 
clause, and properly signifies " but," both as distinguishing and opposing. 
Very often, however, it serves to mark a transition from one proposition 
to another ; and, generally speaking, every proposition which has no 
other conjunction at its commencement takes this <5e, whether it be re- 
ally opposed to the preceding or not, particularly in enumerations. In 
such cases, therefore, it generally remains untranslated in English. In 
the ancient form of the language, especially in Homer, it often stands for 
" and ;" and it is also used on some occasions, in the old poets, to ex- 
plain what goes before, in which cases it answers to yap, "for." 

2. The principal use of 6e, however, is its opposition to [lev. The 
opposition in which one member of a sentence stands to another can be 
stronger or slighter. The Greeks in both cases use ftev and 6e for con- 
nexion ; but in English we can only employ the particles " indeed' 1 '' and 
" bul ,J to designate the stronger opposition ; and hence we are often de- 
ficient in definite expressions for the Greek \iiv and 6e, which we then 
translate sometimes by " and" " also ;" sometimes by "partly — -partly," 
" as well — as also," &c. 

3. When jllev is put in the first member of a sentence, the thought 
necessarily turns to an opposite member with Ss. Several cases never- 
theless occur where, with fiiv preceding, the expected Se does not actu- 
ally occur. Namely, either (1.) the antithesis to the member formed 
with [ih expressly exists, but declares itself so clearly by the position 
and subject that 6e can be omitted. This is chiefly the case when tem- 
poral and local adverbs are used, which stand in a natural opposition be- 
tween themselves ; as, kvravda and ekei, 7rpurov and E-rreira, &c. Or 
(2.) the antithesis lies only in the mind, but is not expressly assigned in 
the discourse. This is chiefly the case when personal and demonstrative 
pronouns are used at the beginning of a proposition, in combination with 
(lev ; as, kyo) fiev 7rpoypvfiat, " I have formed the resolution" (another 
probably not). Kal ravra jxev dr) roiavra, " These things are so circum- 
stanced" (but others differently). Or (3.) the antithesis is indicated by 
another particle ; as, aXka, avrdp, avre, &c. 

"H. 

1. The primary use of rj is disjunctive, and its sense is "or." Next 
to its disjunctive use is that connected with doubt or deliberation, where 
it has the meaning of " whether — or ;" as, fiEpu^pc^ev ri bye 'Arpsidnv 
bvapit-oi, rje %okov Travo-euv. " He pondered whether he should slay 
Atrides or calm his wrath." 

S 



206 CONJUNCTIONS. 

2. The particle rj is also frequently used in a question, when a prece* 
ding and indefinite question is made more definite ; as, ric ovv fioc ano- 
Kpivtlrai ; rj 6 veurarog ; " Who, then, will answer me ? the young 
est ?'' Even in its interrogative sense, however, this particle still re- 
tains, in fact, its disjunctive meaning, as will be apparent if we supply 
as an ellipsis before it, " Am I wrong in my conjecture ?" Thus, in the 
passage just quoted, we may say, " Am I wrong in my surmise, or is it 
the youngest ?" 

T H. 

1. The primary and true sense of t) is that of affirmation. It is ex- 
plained, therefore^ by ovrug, akrid&e, " in reality," " in truth" Its af- 
firmation, however, affects whole sentences or propositions ; as, ?) fteya 
■&avfia rod' b(p8a?ifiolaiv opujiai. " Assuredly, I see in this a great won- 
der for the eyes." 

2. In the combination r) yap it is remarkable that the former particle 
affects the latter. This happens because yap is always a subjunctive 
particle ; and thus r) is confirmatory of the causal signification of yap ; 
as in Priam's words {II. 22, 532), where, after giving orders to keep 
the city gates open for the reception of his routed forces, he adds the 
reason, r) yap 'A^iAAevc kyyvc ode kTioveov "for see, too surely is 
Achilles near throwing all things into confusion." So Calchas (//. 1, 
78) gives a reason for bespeaking the protection of Achilles ; t) yap bto- 
(iai uvdpa ^o/We/zev, k. r. X. "for I assuredly do think that I will 
make that man angry," &c. 

3. In the combination t) tcov the particle t) is affirmative and izov con- 
jectural, and hence the two, when combined, express a degree of proba- 
bility bordering on certainty. They do not however, coalesce into one 
word, for, if they did, ij would have the acute accent. We must render 
t) nov by " in all probability," " doubtless," " unless I am very much 
mistaken" &c. 

KAL 

1. As particles for uniting together the members of a proposition, the 
Greeks make use of nai and the enclitic re, the use and distinction of 
which are pointed out in the following observations : 

2. Kai, and re serve for the simple union both of single ideas and of 
entire parts of a sentence. The connexion by re is more usual in the 
elder and poetic language than in Attic prose, and generally this particle 
is not merely put once between the two ideas to be connected, but join- 
ed to each of the connected parts ; as, izarrjp avdptiv re tietiv re, u the 
father of both gods and men" This connexion by re — re occurs with 



CONJUNCTIONS. 207 

Attic prose writers only in the union of strongly opposed ideas ; as, <]>i- 
pecv xpV T& T£ datfiovia avaynaiue rd re anb ru>v TXo\ep,iwv dvdpetug. 
" We must bear the dispensations of the gods as a matter of necessity, 
and the inflictions of our foes with a spirit of manly resistance." With 
Homer, however, frequently, and with the Attic poets rarely, re—re 
are used in the union of kindred ideas. If more than two ideas are con- 
nected, Homer proceeds with the repetition of re ; as, in 11. 1, 177, 
alel yap roc eptg re §ikn, ttoXe/xol re, fidxai re ; or, after having several 
times repeated re, then uses /cat ; as, Od. 3, 413, seq., 'E^e^puv re, 
Srparlog re, Hepoevg r', 'Apnrog re, ml avrideoc Qpaav[ifj6rjg ; or in- 
terchangeably re, nai, re. 

3. The particles re nai connect more closely than the simple nai, and 
are chiefly used when ideas are to be represented as united in one sup- 
position. Hence this kind of combination is also chiefly used, when op- 
posite ideas are to be assigned as closely connected ; as, xpnGrol re Kal 
-Kovnpoi. — dyadd re teal nana. For this reason we say a?\2,cog re nai 
(both in other respects and also), " particularly also," " especially," be- 
cause a)\Xoc already expresses a natural and strong antithesis to that 
which follows. 

4. The combination nai — nai, " as well — as" " both — and," can only 
be adopted when the combined ideas are of different kinds, but never in 
those which are perfectly homogeneous. Hence several substantives 
can always be connected by nai — nai ; as, arceKretvav nai TvalSac nai 
yvvaticac. But, in the case of adjectives, only those which contain no- 
thing homogeneous in their idea ; as, avdpunovc evp^aetg nai ayadove, 
Kal KaKovc, or nai rrevnrac Kal nlovaiovg, and the like ; not 7r6Atc nai 
ueyakn nai rtoTivdvdpwKog, but fieyaXn re Kal ■Ko'kvdvdpwKog. 

IIEP. 

Hep is an enclitic, and in signification closely allied to ye. It denotes, 
conformably to its derivation from rcepi, comprehension or inclusion, and 
hence, like ye, it is employed to strengthen single ideas. It very fre- 
quently enters into combination with relative pronouns, as also with tem- 
poral, causal, and conditional particles, to confirm their signification. 
The sense of this particle is generally, as in the case of ye, indicated in 
English merely by a stronger intonation of the word, although it may 
frequently also be translated by " very" " ever." In combination with 
a participle we often translate it by " although" or " how much soever." 
Thus, Tieyet, airep ?Jyei, diitaca rcdvra, "he says all, whatever he does 
say, justly ;" fx^re cv rovS', dyadoc 7zsp euv, dizoaipeo Kovpnv, " Nor do 
thou, excellent though thou art, deprive him of the virgin;" i. e., be thou 
never so excellent, however excellent thou art ; evdvg Tcopeverac Tzpo,$ 



208 CONJUNCTIONS. 

Kvpov ynsp elxev, " He proceeds straightway unto Cyrus, just as he 
was." 

ims. 

1. The particle nog, when circumflexed, is interrogative, and signi- 
fies " how ?" The combination nog yap is employed as an emphatic neg- 
ative, "not at all." Thus, nog yap notrjoo, u I will not do it at all" 
literally, " for how shall I do it ?" In the same way nal nog is used ; 
as, nal nog aiond ; " I cannot be silent," literally, " and how am I to be 
silent 1" 

2. As an enclitic, nog signifies " somehow," " in some degree," &c. ; 
as, oX>mc nog, " in some other way ;" ode nog, " somehow thus" &c. 

'02. 

1. The particle dg is sometimes used for Iva, to denote a purpose ; 
as, dg dei^ouev, " in order that we may show." Occasionally, as in the 
case of Iva, the word is omitted, the purpose of which is to be expressed ; 
as, 6g d' akvOij Myo, Kiikei fiot rovg udprvpag. " But that thou mayst 
see that I speak the truth, call for me the loitnesses." 

2. It is also used for otl, with the meaning of " that ;" as, Myovreg, 
og kfceivog ye ov TroXefiel ry 7r6Xei. " Saying, that he does not make 
war upon the city." 

3. It is also used with the meaning of " as," which is its more ordi- 
nary acceptation. Sometimes the tragic writers repeat the word that 
precedes 6g when signifying " as," and this is done when the speaker, 
from unpleasant recollections, does not choose to be more precise. 
Thus, oloTiev og ololev, "He has perished as he has perished;" i. e., 
he has perished ; no matter how. 

4. With the acute accent, it is used in the sense of ovrog, and then 
stands at the beginning of propositions. This usage is very frequent in 
Homer ; as, dg eItcov. We must be careful, however, not to confound 
og for ovrog, with og changed to og because followed by an enclitic, nor 
with og placed after a word on which it depends, and receiving in con- 
sequence the tone or accent ; as, -&ebg dg, " as a god." 

5. It is often used in exclamations, with the signification of " how ;" 
as, dg ae fianapi^ofiev ! " How happy we deem you !" j3porolg eporeg dg 
nanbv [ley a ! " How great an evil is love to mortals !" On this is found- 
ed the use of dg with optatives, in the sense of the Latin utinam, " 1 
wish ;" as, dg \£ ofel' "E/crwp KTzlvai ! " Would that Hector had slain 
me /" literally, " how Hector ought to have slain me /" 

• 6. It is put, like otl, before superlative adjectives and adverbs, and 
strengthens the meaning as, dg rdxtara, " as quickly as possible." 



CONJUNCTIONS. 209 

7. In many cases ug came to be regarded as nothing more than a mere 
strengthening particle, and hence we have the idioms, ug d/ir/dug, "tru- 
ly ;" ug arexvfig, " entirely," &c. 

8. It is often used in limiting propositions with the infinitive ; as, ug 
eitcaaat, " as far as one may conjecture ;" ug efxocye donelv, " as far as 
appears to me at least ;" ug ecKacat, " as far as one may conjecture ;" 
ug e't7reiv, " so to speak." 

9. It is frequently found in this same sense with prepositions follow- 
ing ; as, ug aif bfi/idruv, " to judge by the eye ;" ug em to ito2,v, "for 
the most part." Hence it is often used in comparisons ; as, utugtov 
to 7r?i,7jdog Aeyerai dizoXiaQai, ug rrpbg to fieyedog Trjg TroXeug. " An in- 
credible number are said to have perished, in proportion to the size of the 
city." 

10. It is elegantly joined to participles in the genitive absolute, and 
the participle must then be rendered, in English, by a tense of the verb ; 
as, ug TavTTjg Tr\g x^pag kxvpuTarng ovong- " Because this place was the 
most secure." Sometimes, also, it is connected with the accusative or 
dative of the participle. In these constructions with the participle, 
whether in the genitive, dative, or accusative, it has the force of as, 
since, because, inasmuch as, as if, &c. 

11. It also has the meaning of " when," as a particle of past time ; 
as, ug 6e rfkQe, " but when he came." And sometimes, also, the force of 
" while." 

12. With numerals it signifies " about ;" as, ug TEoaapanovTa, " about 
forty ;" ug rpia rj rirrapa arddia, " about three or four stadia." 

13. It is sometimes put, especially by Attic writers, instead of the 
preposition elg, ffpbg, or ettc. In truth, however, the preposition in such 
instances must always be regarded as understood, while ug retains in 
translation nothing of its original meaning. It must be remarked, how- 
ever, that ug, when put for elg, npog, or errt, is generally found with per- 
sons, and seldom with inanimate things. The primitive meaning of ug 
Trpog, ug elg, &c, is " as towards," "as to," and the particle serves to 
indicate that the preposition must not be taken in a strict and definite 
sense. Hence, when ug alone appears, with the preposition understood, 
it always implies that the approach is made with some degree of timidity 
or reverence. Thus, ug rovg ■&eovg, " unto the gods ;" ug tov (iaacMa, 
" to the king." In this lies the reason why ug is seldom ever construed 
in this way with the names of places or things, but generally with ani- 
mate objects. 

S2 



210 PREPOSITIONS. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

I. Prepositions, in Greek, govern the genitive, dative, or 
accusative. Some govern only one case, others two cases 
and others, again, three ; as follows : 

Genitive only. 

'Avti, 'And, 'Fiic or 'E£, and Upo. 

Dative only. 

'Ev and Svv. 

Accusative only. 
Elg or 'Ec. 

Genitive and Accusative. 
Aid, Kara, and 'Tnep. 

Dative and Accusative. 
'Avd. 

Genitive, Dative, and Accusative. 
*AfJL<j)i, 'Em, Merd, Uapd, Tlepi, Upog, 'Ttto. 

II. We will now proceed to illustrate by examples the 
force of each, arranging them according to the cases which 
they respectively govern. 

I. Prepositions governing the 
Genitive. 

1 . The fundamental idea of the genitive is that of sep- 
aration or abstraction, of going forth, from, or out of any- 
thing. 

2. The prepositions, therefore, that are combined with 
the genitive, carry with them the general meaning of pro- 
ceeding from something; though, strictly speaking, the ideas 
of out of and from, lie primarily in the genitive case itself. 



PREPOSITIONS. 211 

'AvtL 

1. The primitive meaning of this preposition was "against" "con- 
trary to." It has lost, however, its original signification, except in the 
case of compounds ; as, avrtTdrretv, " to place over against;" avrike- 
yeiv, " to contradict." 

2. The secondary meanings of hvri, deducible from the primitive 
meaning, are " instead of," "for" and refer to the relations of exchange, 
purchase, value, &c, where the objects referred to are supposed to be 
set opposite or over against each other, and their respective value thus 
estimated. Hence we have the following examples : dovhoc avrl j3act?<,- 
eoc, " a slave instead of a king ;" avd' uv, "for which reasons" (on which 
account). 

'A7TO. 

1. The leading meaning of this preposition is "from," and it has ref- 
erence either to place, time, or the assigning of the origin or cause of a 
thing. I. The relation of place ; as, crnb x^ovbg, "from the ground;" 
a<j>' "ltcttuv, "from on horseback." II. The relation of time ; as, yevia- 
6at airb deiirvov, " to have done supper" (to be from supper) ; mvEiv arcb 
tov cctlov, " to drink just after eating" (to drink from eating). IIL> 
The assigning of the origin or cause ; as, dirb duiatoavvng, "from a 
love of justice ;" izetyvev aif dpyvpioto j3colo, " he slew him by means of 
a silver how;" oi airo rrjg aroag, "the Stoics" (the philosophers from 
the porch) ; oi airb TiXdruvog, " the Platonics," &c. 

2. It must be borne in mind, that, when citto refers to place, it denotes 
the place at or near which any one was ; whereas the place within is ex- 
pressed by ek. 

'E« or 'E£ 

1. 'E/c (before a vowel ef) has for its leading signification " out of," 
"from," and serves to indicate a choice out of several objects, or to de- 
note a whole consisting of many parts. It may be viewed, like arco, 
under the three relations of place, time, and the assigning of origin and 
cause. I. The relation oi place ; as, ek rfiq 7r61eoc, " out of the city," 
which presupposes that one has been in the city, whereas airb rrjg tco- 
Aewc merely implies that one has been near the city. II. The relation 
of time ; as, e/c t'lvoc %povov, " since a certain time ;" k% ov, " since" 
(supply xpbvov). III. The origin or cause ; as, to, ek narpbg Ttpoarax- 
divra, " the things commanded ly a father ;" ef kfiio, " through me" 
(by my means or authority). 

2. The following examples, falling under some one or other of the 



212 * PREPOSITIONS. 

three relations to which we have just referred, deserve to be noticed i 
ek d-a^drrng, " on the side towards the sea ;" ef eo, " at dawn ;" ef ijfjLe- 
pag, " since z£ became day ;" e/c rov £o<7T7/po)v tyopelv <j>id2,ag, " to carry 
cwp suspended to the girdles 11 (the point of suspension commencing 
with or arising om£ o/ - the girdles) ; e/c roii 7rodoc Kpe/ndaat rwd, " to 
^awg" one by the foot ;" e/c onrjizTpuv ddotTcopElv, " to iraveZ by means of 
staves ;" Xap-fidveLv ittttov e/c r^c ovpdg, " to to£e a Aorse by the tail ;" 
ye/lav e/c rwv irpoadev daicpvaVy " to Zawg-A a/tor Zears ;" e/c ro£ e^a- 
ycwc, "openly;" e/c rov acfnivovg, "unawares;" e£ dirpoadoK^rov, u uiu 
expectedly." 

Upo. 

1. The primitive meaning of 7rpo is " before" and it may be consid- 
ered under the three relations of place, time, and preference. I. The 
relation of place ; as, rrpb aXlov, " before others ;" rcpb 7t61eg)c, " before 
the city." II. The relation of time ; as, ravra itpb rfjg UeccncrpdTOV 
rfkiKiaq hyhero. " TAese things happened before Pisistratus came of 
age." III. The relation of preference ; as, ovdslc ovrcog dvonrog earcv, 
oar eg rroTieftov rrpb elpqvng alpeirai, u No one is so foolish as to prefer 
war to peace" (literally, " who makes choice to himself of war before 
peace) ; irpb -koXKov KOLelGdcu, " to value highly" (to value before 
much), &c. 

2. Hence arise the following examples : /Ltdxecdat, Trpo rivog, " to fight 
for one," because he who fights for one places himself before him. So 
vav/xaxiecv repb rfjg Tie?uO'!rovv7jaov, " to fight a naval battle for the Pel- 
oponnesus ;" ddhcveiv Tzpb dvanTog diizikixov, " to toil on account of a 
cruel king." 

II. Prepositions governing the 
Dative. 

1. The fundamental idea of the dative is directly opposed 
to that of the genitive, since in the dative the idea of ap- 
proach lies at the basis ; or, in other words, it serves to in- 
dicate the more remote object. 

2. This general idea of approach branches off into the 
kindred ideas, 1. of union or coming together ; 2. of like- 
ness ; 3. of advantage or disadvantage. 

3. The dative also denotes, as consequences of the same 
general idea, 1. the instrument or means for effecting any- 



PREPOSITIONS. 213 

tiling ; 2. the manner ; 3. the cause ; 4. a, particular or def- 
inite time. 

'Ev. 
The primary meaning of this preposition is " in" as indicative of 
place ; as, ev rale 'Adrjvatc, " in Athens ;" ev 'Popy, " m Rome." 
From this primary use in definitions of places, the following construc- 
tions are derived, which accord in part with the English or Latin idiom ■ 
I. To denote the person or thing on which, as its substratum, the ac- 
tion is performed ; as, eTiideinvvadai ev tlvi, " to shoto in the case of a 
certain one" II. Among several ; as, ev 'Apyeioic, " among the Ar- 
gives ;" ev adavaroic, " among the immortals." III. ev (f>66o) elvac, 
"to be in fear ;" ev bpyrj elvac, "to he in a rage with any one;" ev 
acaxvvacc extcv, " t° ^ e ashamed;" ev eXacjtpti itocelaQac, "to make 
light of." IV. Referring to clothing, array, &c. ; as, ev p"iv£) "keovroc, 
" in the skin of a lion;" ev TzeXracc, ctnovrcocc, to^occ dcayovi&adac, 
" to contend, equipped with shields, spears, bows ;" ev aretyavoce, 
" adorned with chaplets." V. Denoting a means or cause on which 
something depends ; as, ra [lev Trporepov npaxdevTa ev uTCkacc izoTikacg 
ETZLaroXalc lore, " Ye know the things previously done through many 
other letters ;" ev vofioderacg fieadac vSfcov, " to enact a law by means 
of the nomothetcE," &c. 

"Zvv. 

1. The primary meaning of this preposition is "with," denoting ac 
companiment ; as, iroTfiu avv evdac/xovc, " with a happy lot ;" avv tlvi 
elvac, " to be in company with any one ;" avv rocg "EXknat jiaXXov rj 
avv tu /3ap6dpG) elvac, "to be on the side of the Greeks rather than of 
the barbarian ;" avv rib era) ayadij, " to thy advantage ;" avv r<p Qeu, 
" with the assistance of the Deity." 

2. Hence it also expresses a mean, which, as it were, accompanies 
the effect ; as, rot ical avv fJ.dxo.cg dlgrcoTicv Tpuov vrpddov, "Who twice, 
by means of battles, sacked the city of the Trojans." 

III. Preposition governing the 
*:— ». Accusative. 

1. The accusative denotes the immediate object upon 
which the action of a transitive verb is directed. 

2. AU prepositions connected with the accusative denote 



214 PREPOSITIONS. 

a direction or extension to some point, a stretching, reach- 
ing, finishing, completing. Hence they designate particu- 
lar parts of the general relation expressed by the accusa- 
tive, and are added to the same for greater perspicuity and 
distinctness. 

Elg. 

1. The primitive meaning of this preposition is " into ; n as, elorjlOov 
elg tt]v tzoTilv, " they entered into the city." With this is connected the 
meaning of " to ;" as, inereveiv elg rwa, " to come as a suppliant to any 
one." 

2. With the verbs " to say," " to show" the reference or direction to 
the persons, to whom anything is said or shown, is sometimes considered 
as analogous to an actual motion, and this analogy is expressed by elg ; 
as, ol narepeg Tco7\2,a 6tj kcu na?ia epya aTrefrjvavTO elg 7rdvrag avdpco- 
irovg. " Your fathers exhibited many and honourable deeds before all 
men." Hence it frequently signifies " with respect to," a general refer- 
ence, which in English is often expressed by the more definite " on ac- 
count of," " in consequence of ;" as, (poBeladai stg re, "to be alarmed on 
account of anything ;" dvorvxelv elg re, " to be unfortunate on any ac- 
count ;" Tiotdopelv riva elg ri, " to blame one on any account." 

3. The idea of a direction or relation lies also at the foundation of the 
following combinations ; as, elg aitaTCkayag ttdnuv, "for a deliverance 
from evils;" ebnoav eg avdpelov, "they displayed valour;" elg ravrov 
rjKeiv; " to be in the same circumstances ;" eg rocrovrov, " so far" or " so 
much," &c. 

4. In definitions of time elg has several meanings. I. " Towards ;" 
as, elg eairepav, ". towards evening." II. Duration ; as, elg evcavrov, 
"for a year." III. A point of time; as, eg rjd, "at dawn." It is 
joined also frequently with adverbs of time ; as, elg ana!;, " once ;" elg 
Lei, "for ever," &c. 

5. With numerals elg sometimes signifies " about ;" as, vavg kg rdg 
reTpanooiag, " about four hundred vessels ;" and sometimes it makes 
them distributive ; as, elg 6vo, " bini." 

6. Frequently the noun which is governed by elg is understood, and 
it is then put with the genitive which is dependant upon that noun ; as> 
elg AiyvTzroto (supply poov) ; elg dtdaoKaTiuv (supply 66/u.aTa). This is 
especially the case with the names of deities ; as, elg 'Aprefiidog, " to 
Diana's" (supply lepbv). So in Latin, ventum est ad Cereris, scil. tem- 
plum. 



PREPOSITIONS. 215 

IV. Prepositions governing the 
Genitive and Accusative. 

Aid. 

1. The primitive meaning of did is " through." With the genitive 
this meaning may be considered under two relations : I. Of space and 
time ; II. Of cause and means. 

2, I. The -relation of space and time ; as, to eyx°C fflOe did tov i?w- 
paaog, " the spear went through the corslet ;" dC bXiyov elvai, "to be 
within a little distance of;" iroraubg did ttevts cradiuv dvacpaivofievoCy 
"a river appearing jive stadia off;" did {latcpov xpovov, "after a long 
time ;" di' evdefcdrov ereoc, " eleven years after." But frequently, with 
ordinals, it expresses the recurrence of an action after a certain period of 
time ; as, did rpirov ereoc, " every third year ;" di' kvdrov ereoc, " every 
ninth year." 

■ 3. II. The relation of cause and means ; as, dC kavrov, " by his own 
means ;" di' dyyeXuv leyeiv, " to announce by means of messengers ;" 
did tuv b<j)dalucJv opav, " to see by means of the eyes," &c. 

4. With the Accusative did is again to be considered under two 
relations : I. The relation of place ; II. The relation of cause. 

5. I. The relation of place ; as, did ttovtiov nvfia rcopeveadai, " to go 
through the ocean wave ;" did dufiara, " throughout the mansion." II. 
The relation of cause ; as, did tovto, " on this account ;" did rovg ev 
fiaxouevovg npivovrai at /J.dx<zi, " battles are decided by those who fight 
bravely." 

Kara. 
1. The primitive meaning of this preposition denotes a downward di- 
rection towards an object. Hence we have, in the genitive, nard oko- 
7rov Togeveiv, "to shoot at a mark," because the arrow, proceeding in a 
curve, descends to the mark ; Kara noppng tvtcteiv, " to strike at the 
head" i. e., down against. Hence is deduced the signification "with 
respect to," which frequently, however, may be rendered " against." 
Thus, Kara rivoc elireiv, " to say something with respect to any one," 
or, if this be prejudicial, " to say something against one." So also ipev- 
deodai Kara tov Qeov, " to say something falsely of the Deity," or "to 
speak falsely against the Deity." On the contrary, /^eyiarov nad' vficov 
eyKu/iiov, " the greatest compliment paid you" literally, "with regard 
to you" " upon you." 
~- 2. Kara is used, especially with the genitive, to denote motion from 
above dov/nward, and then answers to the Latin de. Thus, $rj de aar' 



216 PREPOSITIONS. 

OvTivjllttoio naprjvuv, " he went down from the summits of Olympus ;" 
Kaf b<p8aXjucov Kexvr' ax^vg, " darkness was poured down over his 
eyes ;'.' /car' &Kpag, 'ifrom the top downward," speaking of the destruc- 
tion of cities, whereas the Latins say "funditus dclere." Hence Kara 
X^^pog vdtop Scdovai, " to pour water upon the hands ;" Kara yf/g iivai, 
" to go beneath the earth." 

3. The following phrases are to be noticed : evxecdai Kara ftoog, " to 
vow an ox ;" tvxeodai nad' iicar6(j.6j]g, " to vow a hecatomb." In such 
constructions as these the idea is implied of a vow offered down upon 
(i. e., resting upon) something as its basis. In the following, lead' lep&v 
bfioaai, " to swear by the victim" the reference is plainer, for the party 
is supposed, according to the Grecian custom, to touch the victim at the 
time of making the oath. 

4. With the Accusative Kara chiefly indicates " as relates to" 
" according to." Thus, Kara, rov fiavrrjlov anoKpiaiv, " as regards the 
answer of the oracle ;" ra Kara, Havaaviav Kal QsfiicroKMa, " the things 
relating to Pausanias and Themistocles." 

5. From this general meaning several others are deduced. Thus, " on 
account of;" as, Kara, rb fyOog rb AaKedatfiovcuv, " on account of his 
hatred towards the Lacedcemonians," literally, "in accordance with." 
Hence it is often put with verbs of motion, in order to show the object 
of them ; as, Kara "krjirjv eKnT^uaavreg, " having sailed out in quest of 
plunder" literally, " with reference to." 

6. Kara is also joined with the accusative to denote similitude, cor- 
respondence, suitableness, &c. ; as, nrarepa re Kal firjrepa evprjaetg ov 
Kara. ~M.iOpabarr]v Kal rrjv yvvaiKa avrov, " You will find your father as 
well as mother very different people from Mithradates and his wife," lit- 
erally, " not in accordance with." So also /car' euavrov, " of the same 
kind as myself;" ol lead' rjfidg, "men of our station," "of our charac- 
ter," and also " our contemporaries." And again, with comparatives ; 
as, uet&v, rj Kar* avdpoirov, voaelg, " You are labouring under a mal- 
ady worse than man can bear" 

7. Kara, is likewise joined with the accusative in definitions of place ; 
as, Kara, arparov, " in the army ;" Kar' "kpyog, " in Argos ;" Kara yijv, 
"by land;" Kara, rbv irlovv, "on the voyage;" Kara QoKatnv tt62.iv, 
" near the city of Phoccea" Hence in Homer, x^ofievog Kara ftvuov, 
" enraged in soul." 

8. It also appears in definitions of time; as, Kara rbv nxoktuov, "at 
the time of (or during) the war ;" Kara rbv Kara Kpoleov xpbvov, " in 
the time of Croesus." Hence ol Kad' quag, " our contemporaries," men- 
tioned in cj 6. 

9 With numerals, Kara serves to express the same as the Latin dis- 



PREPOSITIONS. 217 

tributives. Thus, tad' eva, " one by one," " singly ;" nad' eirra, " seven 
at a time ;" and without numerals ; as, Kara fiTJva, " every month ;" nat* 
eviavrov, "every year;" Kara irSXeic, "by cities;" Kara Kuiiac, "by 
villages," &c. 

10. It is often with its case expressed by an adverb in English ; as, 
Kara [lolpav, "properly," "fitly;" Kara, fiiKpov, "gradually;" Kara 
Kpdroc, "vehemently," with all one's might; Kara iroda, "quickly" 
" immediately," &c. 

'Yirep. 

1. The primitive meaning of this preposition is "above," "over" 
" beyond." Thus, 6 rfkioc virep rifMuv Kal rtiv ariyuv iropevofievoc, " the 
sun moving above us and our dwellings ;" virep iroXkuv, " beyond many." 
Hence also it is employed in speaking of the sites of towns and places 
on rivers or the sea, because they are higher than it ; as, Xi.fj.7jv Kal itoki$ 
virep avrov, " a harbour, and a city upon it." 

2. From the primitive meaning is deduced that of "for," "in behalf 
of," when a person is supposed to go, as it were, in front of or beyond 
another, and occupy a place which the latter would otherwise have been 
compelled to fill ; and in this way to act for or in behalf of that one. 
Thus, -&VUV virep rijc iroXeoc, " to sacrifice in behalf of the state ;" ixdx- 
eadai virep tlvoc, " to fight for one ;" rifiupetv virep tlvoc, " to punish 
for one." Hence dedcsvai virep tlvoc, " to fear for one." 

3. Connected with this is the meaning " on account of;" as, eptdoc 
virep, " on account of strife ;" d?^yetov virep, " on account of sorrows ;" 
virep rov /j.t) rcoislv to irpooTaTToiievov, "in order not to do what was 
ordered." 

4. From the same source arises also the meaning "for the sake of," 
as used in prayers. Thus, nai fj.LV virep irarpbg Kal finrepoc Kal reKeoc 
Tiioaeo, " and entreat him for the sake of his father, and mother, and off- 
spring." 

5. With the accusative, imep has the meaning of " over," as in the 
genitive ; as, ^lttteovgl virep rov 66/j.ov, " they fling it over the house ;" 
and also the force of "above;" as, virep rd reaaeprjKOVTa ern, "above 
forty years." So, also, virep fiopov, " more than "destiny requires" liter- 
ally, " above destiny ;" virep Xoyov, " above all description." 

V. Preposition governing the 

Genitive and Accusative. 

# 

'Avd. 
1. The primitive meaning of this preposition is directly opposite to 
that of Kara, and denotes motion upward. Hence its original significa- 
T 



218 PREPOSITIONS. 

tion is " up," " up on," &c. This, however, seldom occurs, and deriv- 
ative meanings are more commonly found. 

2. 'Ava governs a dative in the epic and lyric poets only ; as, xpvciut 
avd gktjtvtpo), " on the top of a golden sceptre ;" x? va ^ ai ^ ^ v ' innoig, 
" in a golden chariot" carrying with it the idea of being mounted on 
high ; evdet 6' avd CKawTO) Atoc deroc, " the eagle sleeps on the sceptre 
of Jove ," i. e., on the top of the sceptre; ava vavaiv, "in ships" i. e., 
up on ships. 

3. Elsewhere it governs the accusative, and expresses, 1. A duration 
or continuance, both of time and space ; as, ava rov ttoTis/iov tovtov, 
" throughout this whole ivar," i. e., up along this whole war ; ava Tcaaav 
ijfcepav, " daily ;" ava dtifia, " throughout the mansion." 

A. With numerals it makes them distributive ; as, ava irevre, "five 
at a time;" ava news irapaodyyac rf]c r^ispaq, "five parasangs each 
day." 

VI. Prepositions governing the 
Genitive, Dative, and Accusative. 

'Afifi. 

1. The primitive meaning of this preposition is "around," " about" 
" round about." 

2. With the Genitive, a/xfi has its primitive meaning ; as, ol 
afi<j)l ravrnc olkovcl tt)C ixokioq, " who dwell around this city ;" with 
this same case also it has the signification of " concerning" which it 
shares with nspi ; as, a7roirefnrofj,ai svvvxov otptv, av nepl iratdog kfiov, 
afMJtl ILohvS-eivnc. re fiXvc dvyarpbg, 6Y bvecpov eidov " I turn me with 
horror from the nocturnal vision, which I saw in dreams concerning my 
son, and concerning my beloved daughter Polyxena." 

3. With the Dative it signifies " about," in answer to the question 
" where 1" even when the whole thing is not covered ; as, a[i<j>i rcTisvpalg 
fiaaxa?uaTripac (3d2,e, "fling the broad bands of iron around his sides ;" 
I6p6aei [iev rev reTiauuv a/icpl arr/deaaiv, " the strap shall be moist with 
perspiration around the breast of each one." 

4. Sometimes the case which is governed by the preposition does not 
express the thing about which something else is, but that which is about 
the latter ; as, dju.(j)l irvpl arijaai rpinoda, " to set the tripod on the fire, 
so that the latter blazes around it ;" afupl nlddoig efrodat, " to sit sur- 
rounded with boughs." Hence, when a place is only generally expressed ; 
as, fypLKS 6' dfif' avrQ), " he fell beside him ;" dfupl rpairs^acg icpea 6tedd- 
aavTo, "they divided the flesh around the table," i. e., the table where 
several sat, consequently in different places ; a/i<f>c derate Evpcnov, " newt 
the eddies of the Euripus." 



PREPOSITIONS. 219 

5. It has also with the dative the signification of " concerning,'''' whence 
are deduced the kindred meanings, " on account of" " about" " through" 
&c. Thus, rovg fiev 'Arpecdtiv Kara, rovg S' dfj.<p' 'Odvccei, " some 
against the Atridce, and some about Ulysses ;" roLrjd' dfMpl yvvaiKi 7ro- 
Ivv xpovov alyea irdaxeiv, " to suffer woes for a long time about such 
a woman." Hence dficpl rdp6ec, " through fear." 

6. With the Accusative d/j.<pi denotes "about," in answer to the 
questions " where ?" and " whither ?" as, damd' dficbl fipax'tova icovtyifav, 
" wielding lightly the shield about his arm ;" d^l ipd/nfiadov hK^e&kija- 
6ai, " to be cast out into the sand," so that the sand surrounds the body ; 
djj.(j)c rt lx uv i " io concern one's self about anything." 

7. 'Aftfl frequently stands in this sense with the accusative, not to 
signify a surrounding, but only to denote a place generally. Thus, dfitpt. 
re dcrv epdofcev Ipd dsocacv, " we offer sacrifices to the gods throughout 
the whole city" i. e., all around throughout the city. So dji(fl Qpfinnv, 
"anywhere in Thrace," i. e., in the whole of Thrace, round about. 

8. To this head belongs the phrase ol d[i(pi or rrepi riva. It means, 

I. The person signified by the proper name, with his companions, 
followers, &c. ; as, nal ol u/j,(j)l UeiataTparov dirtuveovrai em 
rfjc 'Adrjvaing lepbv, " and Pisistratus, with his troops, comes to 
the temple of Minerva." So ol Ttspl Qpaav6ov?iov, " Thrasy- 
bulus with his followers ;" ol d[i<fl 'Op<pea, " Orpheus with his 
scholars," &c. 

II. Sometimes this phrase signifies merely the person whom the 
proper name expresses, but only in later writers. Thus, Ar- 
rian, Exp. Al. p. 385, ol ap.<l>l Kparepbv, " Craterus ;" and 
again, Mlian, V. H. 1, 16, ol dfityl rbv Kplrova nal 2,tfip,iav 
Kal Qaidova, " Crito, and Simmias, and Phczdv." This usage 
occurs particularly in the later grammarians. 

III. Sometimes the phrase denotes- principally the companions 
or followers of the person indicated by the proper name, the 
latter being merely mentioned in order to express the former 
more definitely. Thus, Xen. Hist. Gr. 7, 5, 12, ol rrepl 'Ap- 
%ida/j,ov, " the companions of Archidamus." 

'Em. 

1. The primitive meaning of em is " upon," whence various kindred 
meanings arise. 

2. With the Genitive it signifies "on," "at," "in," or "near;" 
as, km ruv kolvuv rrig mSXeug j3o)ftuv, "upon the public altars of the 
city ;" em Kparbc ?iCfj.evog, " at the head of the haven;" iareureg em rtiv 



220 PREPOSITIONS. 

dvpiov, u standing near the door. 11 Hence the phrase km t&v rofztuv 
b/xvvvai, " to stand near and swear by the entrails." 

3. It is also used in answer to the question " whither ?" as, irlelv km 
1,dfxov, " to sail towards Samos" (i. e., literally, " to sail upon Samos") ; 
km I,dp6eo)v fyevyeiv, " to flee towards Sardis." Hence 66bc ij km Ka- 
pinc (jjspovoa, " the road that leads to Caria." 

4. In definitions of time km has the meaning of " during" " under," 
&c. ; as, km KeKponoc, " during the time of Cecrops" (i. e., resting 
upon this period as a species of base) ; krf elpiivnc, " in time of peace ;" 
km rCiv ij/Lcerepuv npoyovuv, " in the days of our forefathers." 

5. It has frequently also the force of the Latin de, and denotes " of" 
" concerning" &c. ; as, oizep km rtiv dovlov k"keyo[iev, " what we were 
remarking concerning the slaves" (literally, " were speaking upon the 
subject of the slaves"). 

6. With the verbs "to name," "to be named," &c, it has the mean- 
ing of " after" "from ;" as, ovofidfcadai km tlvoc, "to be named after 
one" (literally, " to be named upon one"). 

7. It often expresses a connexion, accompaniment, provision, &c, 
either with things or with persons ; as, km GfiLKpwv "koyov, " with a few 
words ;" Kadrjaro KdS/uov labc damSo>v cm, " the people of Cadmus had 
sat down arrayed with shields ;" km izpoaTc6?\.ov fuac x^P^^t " t° go 
accompanied by a single maid-servant." Hence is deduced the mean- 
ing of " before ;" as, km fiaprvpuv, " before witnesses ;" kTru/xoaavro 
km ruv crparnydv, " they swore in the presence of the generals," &c. 

8. In this way the following phrases appear to have originated : k<j>' 
iavrov, " by himself," "peculiarly ;" km cfibv avrdv, " by themselves," 
"unmixed with others" &e. Hence k<f iavrov oUelv, when said of 
states, means " to live by themselves, not dependant upon others, but hav- 
ing a constitution of their own." 

9. 'Etu is also used in the genitive with numerals ; as, km rpidv 
CTijvac, "to stand three deep-" km reaadpo>v, "four deep;" kft hoc r} 
KaTafiaoLg tjv, " the descent was by one at a time." 

10. With the Dative km denotes, in particular, subordination, 
the being in the power of any one, &c. Thus, ruv ovrcov rd ph> karlv 
if' 7] fj.lv, rd 6' ovk k<f>' rjfiiv, " of the things that are, some are in our 
power (under our control), others are not in our power ;" km jiavreaiv 
elvai, " to be dependant upon soothsayers ;" ivocetv ri km tlvl, " to sub- 
mit a thing to any one's judgment ;" to krf kptoi, " as far as depends 
upon me." 

11. With the dative km also denotes condition, especially in the phrase 
e<p' w or e0' ure, "upon condition." That also is regarded as a condi- 
tion, on account of which, in order to obtain it, something is done whicfo 



PREPOSITIONS. 221 

is the price or the foreseen result of the action. Thus, km dupoic, " on 
account of promised gifts ;" dupcp km fieyaku, "for a large gift;" knl 
liocxy adeiv, " to sing for the price of a calf;" em tovtolc uovolc £yv, 
" to live upon condition of having this only ;" x&pav avadeivai 'AttoX- 
?\,ovi em redan depyia, " to consecrate a territory to Apollo, on condition 
of its remaining entirely uncultivated." 

12. Hence it frequently expresses an object or aim, inasmuch as this 
is the condition upon which the action is performed. Thus, urj ulunec 
km dnlijaei Qaveoct vjilv, " lest thieves appear to you in order to do you 
mischief;" ovk em rexvn eaadeg, " you have not learned it in order to 
exercise it as a profession ;" dyeiv tiva em -d-avdrcp, " to lead one away 
to execution." 

13. From this is deduced the meaning " on account of;" as, cppoveiv 
km tlvi, " to pride one's self on account of anything ;" id-avfid^eadaL km 
TWL, " to wonder on any account," &c. 

14. Sometimes, also, it signifies " at," as a definition of place ; as, 
km t& "ATivkc irorauCi, " at the river Alex ;" and sometimes it is em- 
ployed to express generally a combination or coexistence. To this lat- 
ter head belong the phrases Cfiv km iraiacv, " to live, having children ;" 
Cfiv kif Igolglv, " to live upon a footing of equal rights with others ;" km 
dvoiclela, " with disgrace ;" tcadrjodai km ddupvoi, " to sit down in 
tears," &c. 

15. Frequently km, when thus construed, signifies not so much a be- 
ing together as an immediate following upon, or connexion of time and 
space ; as, aveorn kif avru Qepavlac, " Pheraulas arose immediately 
after him;" uyxvn ^ oyxvjl ynpdcKei, "pear after pear grows ripe." 

16. In many cases km with the dative has the same or a similar sig- 
nification with the genitive ; as, km x^ ov h " on the earth ;" km vvkti^ 
" in the night," &c. 

17. With the Accusative em signifies particularly " upon" 
H against," in answer to the question " tohither ?" in those cases where, 
in Latin, in is put with the accusative ; as, ava6atveiv k<p' Itttvov, " to 
mount upon horseback ;" dvaBaiveiv em -&povov, " to ascend a throne;" 
km Ttva unxavdcdai, " to contrive against one." So in em Troda avax- 
upelv, " to retreat," where the Greeks seem to have had in view the re- 
turn into the place which the foot previously occupied. Hence km' is 
often put after verbs of motion with substantives which do not denote a 
place, but an action, which is the end of one's going ; as, levai km &?}- 
pav, " to go upon a hunt;" levat km vdup, " to go in quest of water ;" 
km ri, " to ivhat end ?" " wherefore ?" Sometimes, however, we find 
km with the accusative after verbs of rest, but then motion is always im- 
plied with the preposition. Thus, l£ea6ai km tl, " to go anywhere in 

T2 



222 PREPOSITIONS. 

order to seat one's self there ;" Kelodat km uptcrepd, " to be carried to 
the left and lie there ;" km rd reixv dvrcizaperuaaovTO, " they were drawn 
up against them on the walls,'" where the idea of avatdvrec, " having 
ascended" is implied in km rd reixv- 

18. With definitions of time it answers to the question " how long ?" 
as, km xpovov, " for some time ;" km 6vo r/fiepac, " for two days." It 
is also used with definitions of space ; as, km reooapdnovra arddia, 
"for the space of forty stadia." With numerals it denotes "about;" 
as, km rpiaaoGia, " about three hundred" 

Merd. 

1. The leading idea in this preposition is connexion, either in a greater 
or less degree. It is weaker, however, in this respect than avv. 

2. With the Genitive fierd signifies " with," " together with ;" 
as, Kadijodai fierd ruv uXkuv, " to sit down along with the rest." Hence 
fierd rtvoc elvai, " to be on any one^s side." With the words " to con- 
tend, fight, carry on war," fierd expresses the side which is favoured ; 
as, eTToXefUjaav fierd rcov Gv/ifidxov rcpbc dl?rflovg, " they waged war 
along with their allies against one another." 

3. Hence arise various constructions, the basis of which is the idea 
of a connexion, which in other languages is differently expressed. Thus, 
fierd rcoTiireiac elvai, "to have a regular government ;" fierd rov "koyov, 
"under the guidance of reason;" fierd r&v vo/iuv, "agreeably to the 
laws ;" fierd klvovvov, " in the midst of dangers ;" fierd naididc ical 
olvov, " in jest and drunkenness .V 

4. With the Dative it occurs in the poets only, with the meaning 
of " among," "with;" as, fierd 6e rpirdrotaiv dvaooev, " and he was 
reigning among the third (generation) ;" fierd orparti, " among the 
army ;" vvv de fieff vfierepn dyopy rjfiai, " and now I am sitting amid 
your assembly." Hence arises the general meaning of " in ;" as, 'kv- 
ddlcov fierd %£pcw exovra, " holding the rudder in his hands ;" dXknv 
fiTjrtv nfyaivs fierd (ppecnv, " he wove another plan in mind." 

5. With the Accusative it denotes " after," of which instances 
everywhere occur. Thus, fierd ravra, " after these things ;" fierd rov 
avdpoTrov, " after the man," &c. Hence also eneodai fierd riva, " to 
follow after one." This literal following was transferred to a figurative 
following, or guiding one's self by the example of another. Thus, fierd 
gov nal kfibv Kijp, " agreeably to thy sentiment and mine ;" fierd /c/leoc 
fpxeadat, " to go for glory " i. e., where glory called him (//. 20, 227). 

6. It is likewise joined, by the Attics particularly, with iffiepa alone, 
or with an ordinal number ; as, fied' rjjiepav, " in the daytime ;" fierd 
rptrnv rjfiepav, " on the third day." 



PREPOSITIONS. 223 

7. In Homer especially it means " among' 1 '' several, with plural or col- 
lective words, both where motion and rest are expressed. Thus, fzera 
irdvrac 6fi7}?wcae, " among all his companions in years ;" ped' d/Lcc2,ov } 
" among the throng." 

TLapd. 

1. The primitive meaning of irapd is " by the side of" a signification 
which lies at the basis of all the other meanings assigned to this prepo- 
sition. 

2. With the Genitive it signifies "from" (i. e., from the side of), 
and expresses motion from a place ; as, (pdayavov kpvaaaro irapd \iwpov, 
" he drew his sword from his thigh;" Trap' Alrjrao irMovoa, " sailing 

from Metes." Hence it denotes what originates and proceeds from 
something ; as, fiadecv irapd rcvoc, " to learn from any one ;" dyyiXkziv 
irapd rtvoe, "to announce from any one." 

3. So also in the expressions, Trap' eavrov dcdovai, " to give some- 
thing from his own substance ;" Trap' avrov, " by his command" (Xen. 
H. G. 2, 1, 27), &c. 

4. With the Dative it signifies " with" " at" in answer to the 
question " where ?" Thus, $j]/J.ioe 6c (f yetde irapd [ivrjarripaLV dvdyKy, 
" Phemius, who sang with the suiters (i. e., among them) through com- 
pulsion;" irapd -&EOLS ml Trap' dvdpuirocc, " with gods and men." 

5. With the Accusative it signifies " to," " towards" (i. e., to the 
side of) ; as, irapd vrjac 'Axai&v, " towards the ships of the Greeks ;" 
irapd Ka/x6vaea, " to Cambyses ;" irapd ttjv BaSvXuva, " to Babylon." 
It is frequently used thus in answer to the question "where?" but then 
the idea of motion is always implied in the preposition. Thus, ol fibv 
KOijurjaavTo irapd irpvjj.vrjOLa vnoc, "they on their part lay down to rest 
by the stern-fasts of the ship," i. e., they went to and lay down by them. 

6. It often occurs with the meaning "in comparison with," "by the 
side of," "for." Thus, 6p£>v rd kirtrndevfiaTa avrtiv eyyvdev irapd rd 
tC)V dTJkuv, " seeing their objects of pursuit from near at hand in com- 
parison with those of the rest;" 'iv Trap' eaTibv Txrjjxara ovvdvo daiovrac 
(iporolc dddvaroi, "for one piece of good fortune the gods bestow upon 
mortals a pair of evils ;" irapd rd d%%a &a, " in comparison with the 
other animals" (Xen. Mem. 1, 4, 14). 

7. From the primitive meaning " by the side of" are derived the fol- 
lowing phrases : irapd fxiapov, "almost" (by the side of little) ; 7rapa 
iroXv, "by far" (by the side of much), &c. 

8. It has also the meaning of " along," which results directly from 
the meaning "by the side of;" as, irapd ■&lva ^aTidaanc, "along the 
shore of the sea ;" irapd vijac levat, " to go alongside the ships" (Eunp. 



224 PREPOSITIONS. 

Bacch. 17), not, as elsewhere, " to go towards the ships." Hence also 
of time, "during" "throughout;''' as, Trap' o?mv tov (3'lov, "through 
one's whole life." Especially when a definite point of time is expressed ; 
as, Tzapa rrjv ttoglv, "in drinking;" Trap' avra ra aStn^fxara, "at the 
very moment of the unjust transaction." 

9. It has also the meaning of " against" " contrary to" " otherwise 
than ;" as, itapa 66%av, " contrary to opinion ;" napa tyvoiv, " contrary 
to nature," &c. 

TLepL 

1. The primitive meaning of this preposition is " about" " around" 
from which are deduced various other significations. 

2. With the Genitive it answers most nearly to the Latin de, and 
denotes " of," " concerning," &c. ; as, 'Kepi rtvoc Myecv, " to speak 
concerning any one." The most universal sense, however, is " with re- 
spect to," "as regards," " in point of," &c. Thus, nepl /iev drj (3p6- 
ceac. teal Trocrsoc, " as regards, then, eating and drinking ;" ovdelc av- 
rtjv TcXr/deog Trepi a^ioc ov/u.6?i?]dfjvai hart, " no one of them is worthy of 
being compared with it in point of size." 

3. The following phrases serve to express value; as, Tzoieladat n 
•xepl tzoTiTiov, " to value a thing highly," i. e., in respect of much ; rjyela- 
6ac re Tiepi t:\ugtov, " to regard a thing as of the greatest value" i. e., 
in respect of very much. So, also, Troieladac re irepi jiiKpov, " to set 
little value upon a thing ;" rjyzlaQai tl rcepi ovdevoc, " to regard a thing 
as of no value." 

4« In Homer irepi often carries with it the meaning of superiority, 
and has the meaning of " above," &c. ; as, edeXec Tvepl tt&vtov efifievai 
aXKijiv, " he wishes to be above all others ;" ol wept p,ev fiovTifyv Aavauv, 
Kept 6' tare fidxeadaL, " ye who are superior to the rest of the Greeks in 
council, and superior in the fight." Here (Sov"krjv is governed, not by 
7VEpl, but by Kara understood. 

5. With the Dative it signifies "about," "around," "on," in an- 
swer to the question "where?" as, irepl ry x El P^ XP vao ^ v danrvTiiov 
tpepeiv, " to wear a golden ring on the hand :" often when something 
surrounds that which is in the dative ; as, Tvepl Sovpl rjarcaipei, " he pant- 
ed around his lance," i. e., on his lance ; ireTtTcJra rude irepl vEopfiuvTO) 
%l(j>EL, " having fallen on this sword fresh sprinkled with blood." So in 
the general designation of a place ; rzepl ^Kaiyai TrvAnoi, " in the neigh- 
bourhood of the Sccean gate." Hence probably in Herodotus (9, 101), 
ut] Ttepl Mapdovlo) 7ZTaioy i] 'E/l/lac, " lest Greece strike on Mardonius, 
as on a shoal." 

6. With the poets nepc with the dative signifies also "for" answer- 



PREPOSITIONS. 225 

ing to the Latin pro, ; as, rrepl <p66(p, "for fear," i. e., from fear, pr<z 
metu. 

7. With the Accusative it signifies particularly " round about," in 
answer to the questions " where ?" and " whither ?" as, i^wpaf rrepl ra 
crspva, " a corslet round about the breast." It is here also used like 
ajLtfc, to denote not so much a surrounding as a place or region gen- 
erally. Thus, 7repi Qeaaalcrjv, " somewhere in Thessaly," not " around 
Thessaly." 

8. It is often put also with definitions of time ; as, nepc rovrovg rovg 
Xpovove, " about this same time ;" izepl irXrjdovaav ayopdv, " about the 
time when the market-place fills." With numerals also it signifies 
" about," "nearly ;" as, irepl Tpiaxc?uovg, " about three thousand." 

9. It signifies also " with regard to," when it may be rendered " iw," 
"of," "against;" as, d/iaprdvELV rcspi riva, "to offend against any 
one;" uSiicog izepi riva, "unjust towards one;" oaxppovelv -Kepi rove 
■&eovr t " to be sound in one's belief as regards the gods." 

TLpog. 

1. The primitive idea expressed by this preposition is that of some- 
thing proceeding from one thing towards another. 

2. With the Genitive it denotes "from," "of," "by;" as, rrpbg 
yap Atoc elglv aTravreg %evol, "for all guests are from Jove," i. e., are 
protected by Jove ; nvpbg -&v/j,ov, " of one's free will," i. e., cordially ; to 
"Kocevjievov repbe Aanedai/xoviov, "what was done by the Lacedemonians." 

3. Hence result the following phrases : elvai rrpog rivog, " to be on 
any one's side," like the Latin stare ab aliquo; b earl rzpog r&v ri&iKn- 
kotuv \id7Ckov, " xohich is to the advantage rather of those who have acted 
wrongfully ;" to irpbg kelvov, " that which speaks for him," i. e., serves 
for his exculpation. Hence npbc dinvc. tl e%ew, for 6i,Katov rival. So, 
also, Trpbc rrarpog, " on the father's side ;" ol rrpbg aluarog, " the rela- 
tions by blood." 

4. It is often used with the genitive in entreaties and protestations ; 
as, rrpbg rov gov tekvov nal $e&v Uvovaai, " I supplicate thee by thy 
child and by the gods," i. e., by every consideration proceeding from 
them. 

5. It has also the meaning of " towards ;" as, rrpbg TroXtog, " towards 
the city" (II. 22, 198) ; rrpbg fj.£G7][i6pc7]g, " towards the South" (Herod. 
2, 99) ; 7rpoc rjliov Svcfisuv, " towards the setting of the sun" (Id. 7, 
115). 

6. With the Dative it signifies chiefly either " at," " with," in an- 
swer to the question " where ?" as, npbg tovtcj blog Elpi, " I am wholly 
at this" i. e., wholly occupied with this ; 7rpoc tlvi elvai, " to ponder on 



226 PREPOSITIONS. 

anything :" or else it has the meaning of " besides,'''' " in addition to;" 
as, 7rpoc rovroig, " in addition to these things ;" 7rpoc kpiol ical col, " be- 
sides thee and me." 

7. With the Accusative it has the signification of " to" in answer 
to the question " whither ?" as, aireSrj rrpbg fianpov "O/lvfnrov, " he de- 
parted to lofty Olympus ;" 7rpoc rrarspa tov gov, " to thy father." Fre- 
quently, however, it expresses, generally, a direction to an object, with 
the meaning of " towards," " after ;" as, irpbg tju -f -qskibv re, " towards 
Aurora and the sun," i. e., towards the rising sun (II. 12, 239) ; 7rpoc 
£6<pov rjepoevra, " towards the dark West" {lb. 240). Herodotus, in this 
sense, often puts the genitive, as above, § 5. 

8. Sometimes it has the meaning of " on account of;" as, 7rpoc tov rrjv 
oipLV ravrvv, "on account, then, of this vision" (Herod. 1, 38) : "ksysig 
6s 6rj ri nal irpbc ri ; " you say, then, what, and on what account ?" i. e., 
with what view (Plat. Hip. Min. p. 370, extr.). So, (f>o6ela8aL rrpog ri, 
"to be afraid on any account" (Soph. Trach. 1211); -&av[/.a&iv rrpog 
tl, "to wonder on any account" (Id. (Ed. C. 1] 19) ; 7rpoc ovdsv, " on 
no account ;" rrpbg ravra, " on this account," &c. 

9. It has also, with the accusative, the meaning of "for," "with re- 
spect to;" as, KaTibg irpbc dpo/iov, "fair for running ;" rsTisog rrpbg ap- 
ET7]v, " matured for virtue." Hence it is particularly used in compari- 
sons ; as, utugtov rrXfjdog (bg 7rpbg to p.sys6og rfjg TroTisug, " an incred- 
ible number for the size of the city," literally, "in comparison with;" 
rrepl rrjv aotyiav (pavlovg rrpbg vfidg, " unfit for wisdom in comparison 
with you." 

10. It also signifies "according to," "conformable to," "after;" as, 
Trpoc ra tov BaBvXuviov prjfMaTa, " according to the words of the Baby- 
lonian;" rrpbg Tavrnv rrjv (prj/xnv, " in accordance with this prediction ;" 
ov rrpbg Tovg v/neripovg 2,6yovg, " not taking your words for a pattern." 

11. The idea of direction towards some particular object is the ground- 
work also of the following phrases : G§u%ai rrpbg bpdbv x&tf 'Axi^stov 
T&cpov, "to immolate, turning towards the lofty mound of Achilles'' tomb ;" 
dunpidncav rrpbg re 'A6?]vaiovg mal AaKsdaifj.ovi.ovg ol "E/M^vec, "the 
Greeks separated, and went over, some to the Athenians, others to the 
Lacedaemonians." 

12. It has also, with the accusative, an adverbial sense ; as, 7rpoc to 
deivov, " cruelly ;" rrpbg to naprspov, " violently ;" 7rpoc svas6stav, 
"piously;" rrpbg fiiav, "perforce;" rrpbg i]6ovrjv, "willingly." 

13. With numerals it denotes "about," "nearly ;" as, 7rpoc TSTpann- 
oiovg, " about four hundred;" rrpbg saarbv, "nearly one ) 



PREPOSITIONS. 227 

'Ttto. 

1. The primitive meaning of this preposition is "under" a significa- 
tion which it often has with the genitive ; as, vtto yfjc, " under the 
earth ;" and often it signifies "from under ;" as, vtto x^ovbc t)ke tyoua- 
6e, " he sent it from beneath the earth into the light.'''' 

2. Like the Latin sub, it sometimes expresses proximity with a higher 
place ; as, vfi apfiaroQ, " near the chariot" where the reference is to 
one who is standing on the ground, with the chariot erect by his side. 
Hence, figuratively, " below the chariot." 

3. From the meaning of " under" is deduced that of " by" especially 
with passive verbs, the reference being to something under the influence 
of which a certain act is performed or result brought about. Thus, 
facacvetcdcu vtto tlvoc, " to be praised by any one ;" c^ayele vtt' Klyia- 
6ov, "immolated by Mgisthus ;" cnrodavetv vtto tlvoc, "to die by the 
hands of one;" vtt > dyyeTu^v TTopsvsaOac, " to go by reason of messen- 
gers ;" ae?i?ia vtto Spovrijc Trarpbg Aioc elat ireSovde, " the tempest, by 
the thunder of father Jove, descends to the plain;" vtto tuv TpidnovTa 
Kuveiov TTLovrec, " having drunk hemlock by command of the thirty." 

4. From the two meanings of " under" and " by" combined seem to 
have arisen such phrases as the following : vtto (popjiiyyuv xopsvecv, " to 
dance to the music of harps ;" vtt' avliov nofia&iv, " to revel to the flute." 
For here the preposition with its case appears to express, on the one 
hand, a kind of subordination, inasmuch as the subject of the action con- 
forms itself to the substantive which is governed by the preposition ; and, 
on the other hand, the action is effected, or at least defined, by the sub- 
stantive in the genitive, as in the construction of the passive with vtto 
and the genitive. 

5. With the Dative it has often the same signification as with the 
genitive, as, for example, with passives* in the sense of a or ab. Thus, 
a VTTtaxvov aTrorerekearaL aoi f)dv, " what you promised have been noio 
done by you ;" ttpoottoTiolc (pvXdaaerai, " he is guarded by his attend- 
ants." So, also, as with the genitive, vtto 6ap6tTG) xopevecv, " to dance 
to the lyre," &c. 

6. It often, in particular, when joined with this case, signifies " under," 
with the idea of subordination ; as, vtto tlvl elvai, " to be under one," 
l. e., obedient to one ; ttoisZv rt vtto tlvl, "to submit anything to any 
one" &c. 

7. With the Accusative it signifies " under," " at," analogous to 
the Latin sub, in answer to the question " ivhither?" as, vtto "YXlov ?}/l- 
6ev, " he came beneath Ilium," i. e., under the walls of Troy. It is 
likewise employed with this case in definitions of time ; as, vtto rovg 
avrovg XP° V0V C> " about the same time." 



228 PREPOSITIONS. 

8. Sometimes it is found with the accusative, in answer to the ques- 
tion " where ?" as, ovre vitegtl olK^fiara virb yfjv, " nor are there any 
chambers under ground'''' {Herod. 2, 127) ; el rivac ayaivTO rtiv v<p' hav- 
tovc, " in case they thought highly of any of those under them" (Xen. 
Cyrop. 3, 3, 6). Hence, vi? avydc opav ti, " to examine anything by 
the light" i. e., under the light ; with the light streaming down upon it ; 
vrro ri, " in some measure," &c. 

9. With names of places it expresses proximity, like the Latin sub, 
but refers to some elevated object. Hence, perhaps, the expression, 
vtzo diKdaTTjpiov uyeiv Ttvd, " to lead a person to the tribunal of judges" 
the judges sitting on elevated seats. 

GENERAL REMARKS ON PREPOSITIONS. 

1. Prepositions are often used as adverbs, without a case, especially 
kv in the Ionic and Attic poets. Thus, hv 8e 6r] nal AeaSiovc eIXe, 
" among others, then, he took the Lesbians" (Herod. 3, 39) ; hv 6' 6 
nvptyopoc -&ebc ctcr/ipac hXavvsi, Xocfxbc exOtaroc, iroltv, " while within 
the fiery god, in the shape of a most odious pestilence, having descended 
like a thunderbolt, ravages the city." Among the Attic writers npoc 
especially is thus used, with the meaning of " besides ;" as, MeveXae, 
col 6e rdde Myo, dpdau te Tcpoc, " Menelaus, I say these things unto 
thee, and besides I will do them" (Eurip. Orest. 615). 

2. Hence in Ionic writers they are often put twice, once without a 
case adverbially, and again with a case or in composition with a verb. 
Thus, dv 6' Odvcevg 7ro/iv[j.7]Ti,c avtararo, " up thereupon arose the sa- 
gacious Ulysses" (II. 23, 709) ; hv de nal hv Mificpi, " in Memphis also" 
(Herod. 2, 176), &c. 

3. In composition with verbs the prepositions are always used adver- 
bially. Hence, in the older state of the language, in Homer and Herod- 
otus, it is customary to find the preposition and verb separated by other 
words, and the former coming sometimes immediately after the verb ; 
as, rjfiiv dnb %otybv dfxvvai (II. 1, 67) ; hvapc&v aif evrea (II. 12, 195) ; 
a7rb [ihv ceuvrbv dlsaag (Herod. 3, 36), &c. Hence, when the verb 
is to be repeated several times, after the first time the preposition only 
is often used ; o-tzoXeZ ttoXlv, dwb 6s Traripa (Eurip. Here. F. 1056) ; 
Kara fihv huavoav Apvubv izohtv, Kara 6h XapdSpav (Herod. 8, 33), &c, 

4. In the cases mentioned under § 3 there is properly no tmesis, i. e., 
the separation of a word used at that period of the language in its com- 
pounded form ; but the prepositions at that time served really as adverbs, 
which were put either immediately before or after the verbs. At a later 
period, however, particularly in Attic, the composition became more 
firmly established, and the prepositions were considered as a part of 
the verb. In Attic writers the proper tmesis is extremely rare.- 



PREPOSITIONS. 229 

5. The prepositions are often separated from their case. Thus, hv 
yap ae ry vvktI ravrrj dvacpeo/zat (Herod. 6, 69) ; especially when a 
word is repeated in two different cases ; as, Trap' ovk edeXuv kdelovar) 
(Od. 5, 155), &c. 

6. Prepositions likewise are often put after their case ; as, veuv aizo 
Kal ulioiauv, particularly in Ionic and Doric writers and the Attic poets. 
This takes place in the Attic prose writers only in izepi, with the geni- 
tive, of which the instances are frequent. 

7. When a preposition should stand twice with two different nouns, 
it is often put only once by the poets, and that, too, with the second 
noun ; as, rj dhbg 7} km yfjg (Od. 12, 27) ; kSdo/xa Kal avv denary, yeveqZ 
{Find. Pyth. i, 16), &c. 



SYNTAX. 



THE ARTICLE. 

1. The article 6, rj to, is properly a demonstrative pro- 
noun, and is used as such, in the elder language, by Ho- 
mer, and, in imitation of him, by the later epic poets ; as, 
6 yap $acikr\L xohcodeic, "for this (deity) being incensed 
against the king ;" rd 6' asnoiva decode, u and receive this 
ransom" 

2. But in later Greek, and especially among the prose 
writers, the article is generally employed to mark emphasis 
or distinction, and loses its demonstrative force ; 2 as, 6 ttoX- 
Efioc ovk avev klv6vvg)v, rj 6e elprjvn anivdvvog, " war is 
not free from dangers, but peace is without danger" (here the 
article is put on account of the opposition of war and 

1 . The greater part of the rules which are common to the Greek and 
Latin languages are here omitted. 

2. But the prose usage, it must be remembered, is derived from the 
original demonstrative force of the article. Thus, 6 Trohepoc. is strictly 
" that state of things called war," and 7) slpr/vr], " that state of affairs 
termed peace." So 6 Kvpoc is literally " that well-known Cyrus." 



230 THE ARTICLE. 

peace) ; 6 Kvpog nroXXa eOvr] tear ear peijjaro, " the celebra- 
ted Cyrus subdued many nations" (here the article is em- 
phatic). 

3. When a, proper name first occurs in prose, it is with- 
out the article (unless meant to be emphatic) ; but when it 
occurs the second time it generally has the article. 1 This 
is called the usage of renewed mention. Thus, rjv Zevocfxjjv 

'AdTjvalog 6 fisvroc "Eevo&GJv dvanotvovrai Scoupd- 

rei .... teat 6 'EojKpdrrjg avfi6ovXevei avrco, " there was 
Xenophon, an Athenian .... this Xenophon, however, con- 
fers with Socrates .... and he, Socrates, advises him." 

4. But the article must always be omitted before a proper 
name when an additional substantive, with the article, is 
subjoined to the same for nearer definition ; as, Kvpog, 6 
tgjv UepGGJv fiaoiXevg, " Cyrus, the king of the Persians ;" 
Qrj6ac, at ev 'BoiOdria, " Thebes, the city in Bozotia." 

5. Every expression which does not merely indicate an 
object generally, but represents it as existing in a particular 
state or in a peculiar relation, is accompanied in Greek by 
the definite article ; as, rbv yepovra aldelodai xpi], " one 
ought to reverence an old man ;" rtiv rov (3lov dyaddv fisr- 
s%eiv del nal rbv dovXov, " even a slave ought to participate 
in the good things ofUfe. m 

6. The article is used in prose with the demonstratives 
ovrog and eftelvog, in which case the pronoun either pre- 
cedes the article or follows the substantive; as, ovrog 6 
dvrjp, or 6 dvrjp ovrog (not 6 ovrog dvrjp), " this same man." 

7. The article is also added to the possessive pronoun, 
for the purpose of giving a more precise definition. Thus, 
Ejibg vlog is merely a " son of mine ;" but 6 e/ibg vlog is 
" my son" who is already known from the context. 

8. Adverbial expressions become adjectives by the ac- 

1. Unless the interval be so extensive a one that the mind does not 
readily recur to the individual as having been before mentioned. To 
this, however, there are several exceptions. 

2. Literally, " the one that is old;'''' " the one that is a slave.''' 



THE NOMINATIVE AND VERB. 231 

cession of the article ; as, ol rrdXat dv6po)rrot, " the early 
race of men ,•" 6 fierai-v xpovog, " the intervening time" 1 

9. The neuter of the article to is joined also to infini- 
tives, and forms in this way a species of verbal noun ; as, 
to npaTTStv, " the doing ;" to naX&e; Xeyeiv, " the speaking 
well" 2 

10. The article is also combined with uev and 6e, and 
then has in some degree the force of a pronoun ; as, ol 
fiev eg tyvyfjv ETpdnovTO, ol 6s efieLvav, " these, indeed, 
turned themselves to flight, but those remained ;" tovc; fiei> 
eTryvEL, Tovg S' eaoXa^ev, " the former he praised, but the 
latter he punished."* 

THE NOMINATIVE AND VERB. 

1. A verb agrees with its nominative in number and per- 
son ; as, ey£) Xeyo), " / say ;" tovtcj to) avdpe rjyrjododrjv, 
" these two men thought ;" ol -deol noXd^ovai, " the gods 
punish" 

2. A neuter plural, however, is generally joined with a 
singular verb ; 4 as, daTpa (patveTai., " stars appear ;" TavTa 
EOT iv ay add, " these things are good" 

,. 3. But when the neuter plural refers to living persons, 
the verb is often put in the plural also, because persons are 
for the most part considered separately by the mind, but 
things as forming a class. 5 Thus, tcL tsXtj vttsuxovto, 

1 . When a substantive is omitted, they supply the place of substan- 
tives ; as, i] avpiov, " the morrow," supply rjfispa ; and again, ol ttXij- 
oiov, " neighbours," supply avdpoTTOt. 

2. Sometimes the article is joined to an entire clause ; as, kav tovto 
(3e6atG)£ imap^y, tote nal rcepl tov riva Tifzopr/OErai tic knelvov rpoirov 
k^earac okottelv, " if this be firmly established, then ivill it be allowed us 
also to consider in what manner one shall punish that monarch." 

3. So in the neuter, to, \lev — ra 6e, "partly — partly " &c. 

4. This usage is more observed by the Attics than by the older wri- 
ters in the Ionic and Doric dialects, and is frequently neglected by the 
Attics themselves. 

5. Sometimes we find even a singular verb following a masculine or 
feminine plural ; as, vfivot T£?X£Tai, " hymns arise" Pind. Ol. 11,4; 
o^trrai 6/j,(pal fisTieuv, " the voices of song resound," Id. fragm. In the 
Attic writers, however, this takes place only where the verb precedes, 



232 THE NOMINATIVE AND VERB. 

" the magistrates promised ;" roadds fzev fierd 'AdrjvaLCJV 
edvr] earpdrsvov, " so many nations served along with the 
Athenians" 

4. When the subject consists of several persons or things 
singly specified, and which follow the verb, the latter often 
stands in the singular ; as, eon nal kv dXXaio. ttoXeglv ap- 
%ovtsc re nal drjfioc, " there are in other cities also both ma- 
gistrates and a commons." Here, if dpxovrsc stood alone, 
the verb would necessarily be elal. 

5. Collective nouns, on the contrary, that is, nouns sin- 
gular which express multitude or number, have often their 
verb in the plural ; x as, to orparonedov avex&povv, " the 
army retired ,*" ttoXv ysvog dvdpdjirov xp&vrat rovro), " a 
large class of men use this" 

6. A dual nominative is sometimes joined with a plural 
verb ; 2 as, ra 6s Ta%' eyyvdsv rjXdov, " they two quickly 
drew near ;" dficpG) Xeyovci, " both say" 

7. The nominative is often omitted when the verb itself 
expresses the customary action of the subject ; as, oaXrd&i, 
" the trumpeter sounds his trumpet," where 6 oaXmitTrjg is 
implied ; eicrjpvt-e, " the herald made proclamation," where 
6 fcrjpvi; is implied. 

8. When two or more substantives are connected by a 
conjunction, the verb which belongs to all, instead of being 
in the plural, is sometimes found to agree with one of these 
substantives, and usually with that one which is nearest to 
it, and the most important in the sentence ; as, aol yap ed- 

in which case probably the author had the whole in his mind, and ex- 
plained or defined it afterward by the substantive in the plural. Thus, 
dsdotiTCLL <j>vyai, "exiles are decreed,'''' Eurip. Bacch. 1340. 

1. This construction occurs even in the genitive absolute; as, rov 
orolov rrTieovTcjv, Demosth. in Mid. 45. 

2. Sometimes, on the other hand, the dual of the verb is put with the 
plural nominative, even when more than two persons are signified. This 
occurs chiefly in the earlier epic poets, and is not found in the tragedians 
and prose writers. Many scholars consider the passages in question 
corrupt, or think that they must be explained otherwise. The whole 
difficulty is removed, however, by regarding the dual as originally an 
old form of the plural, -limited subsequently to the expression of two. 



THE SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE. 233 

gjks vinr\v Zevg Kpovidrjg nal 'AttoXXojv, "for unto thee has 
Jove, the son of Saturn, given victory, and Apollo." 

9. Sometimes a nominative is put without a verb follow- 
ing, and is then called the nominative absolute ; as, eicelvoi 
6e elaeXdovreg, elnsv 6 Kpiriag, " they having entered, Crit- 
ias said." 

THE SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE. 

1. An adjective is often put in the neuter gender, with- 
out regard to the gender of the substantive which stands 
with it in the sentence, XPW a Dem g understood, and re- 
mains in the singular even when the substantive is in the 
plural j 1 as, ova ayadbv r\ ixoXvuoipavia, " the government 
of the many is not a good thing ;" fiera6oXal elot Xvnrjpov, 
" changes are a sad thing." 

2. An adjective of the masculine gender is often found 
with a feminine noun of the dual number, and under this 
rule are also included the pronoun, participle, and article f 
as, apxpcb tovtg) to) rroXee, " both these cities ;" 6vo yvvalns 
epi^ovre, " two women quarrelling ;." rw %£?pe, " the two 
hands." 

3. An adjective is often put in a different gender from 
the substantive with which it stands, as referring to the 
person or persons implied by that substantive ; 3 as, cpiXe 
rsicvov, " dear child" {II. 22, 84), spoken of Hector ; retcog 
drpvrcjvr], " indefatigable offspring" (II. 2, 157), spoken of 
Minerva. 

4. Hence a collective noun in the singular number, and 
of the feminine or neuter gender, is often accompanied by 
the adjective in the plural and masculine; as, exofiev rr\v 

1. In all such constructions as these, the substantive is regarded by 
the mind as representing merely some general class of things, and hence 
the adjective is put in the neuter gender. 

2. Hence it has been inferred that the dual of the adjective, pronoun, 
participle, and article had originally only one form, namely, the mascu- 
line. 

3. Grammarians call this synesis {ovvegis), i. e., an understanding of 
the person implied by the substantive. 



£34 PRONOUNS. 

dXXrjV vTrrjpealav nXeiovg feat dfietvovg, " we have the rest 
of the crews more numerous and skilful." 

5. Among the tragic writers, when a woman speaks of 
herself in the plural number, she uses the masculine ; and 
the masculine is also employed when a chorus of women are 
speaking of themselves. Thus, ol 7rpoOvf]oKOvreg (Eurip.), 
where Alcestis speaks of herself ; cpfCTetp' dnovoag (Eurip. 
Androm.), " / pitied, on having heard," where the chorus 
speak. 

6. A substantive is often used as an adjective j 1 as, y/U5<7- 
aav 'EXXdda edida%£, " he taught the Greek tongue" 

7. The substantive is often changed into a genitive plu- 
ral ; 2 as, ol xprjOTol rtiv dv6pa)7T0)v, " the worthy ones among 
men," for ol xprjOToi avdponoi, " worthy men." 

8. This construction takes place also in the singular, es- 
pecially in Attic ; as, rrjv irXeiOTTjv rr\g orpariac (Thucyd.), 
" the greatest part of the army ;" rov ttoXvv tov -^povov, 
" a great part of the time" 

9. An adjective in the neuter gender, without a substan- 
tive, governs the genitive ; as, yJaov r\\iipag, " the middle 
of the day " rooov bfiiXov, " so great a throng." 

10. Adjectives are very often put in the neuter singular 
and plural, with and without an article, for adverbs ; as, 
nptirov, " in the first place;" to npcorov, " at first ;" Kpv- 
<pala, " secretly ;" (paidpa, " cheerfully." 

PRONOUNS. 
1. The noun to which the relative refers is often omitted 
in the antecedent proposition, and joined to the relative in 
the same case with it ; as, ovroc eariv, bv eldeg avdpa, 
" this is the man whom you saw ;" ovrc £%(*), &tlvi Tuorevoai 
uv 6vvai\i,r\v (plXo), " / have no friend on whom I might rely" 

1. This is of very ordinary occurrence in our own language ; as, sea- 
water, house-dog, &c. 

2. The substantive is here considered as a whole, and the adjective as 
a part. 



PRONOUNS. 235 

2. The relative often agrees with its antecedent in case, 
by what is called attraction ; as, ovv rolg tirjoavpolg, olg 
6 naTTjp fcareXinev, " with the treasures which his father left 
behind ;" ayo)v and rdv noXeov, cjv eneiae, arparidv, 
" leading a body of troops from the cities which he had per- 
suaded." 

3. If, in this attraction, the word to which the relative 
refers be a demonstrative pronoun, this pronoun is generally 
omitted, and the relative takes its case ; as, ovv olg \idX- 
tora (pcXelg, " with those whom you most love" for ovv rov- 
rotg ovg fidXiara (ptXelg. 

4. Sometimes the antecedent takes the case of the rela- 
tive ; as, akXov ova olda, ov av rev%ea dvo), " / know not 
any other whose arms I may put on." 

5. The nominative of the personal pronoun is usually 
omitted with the personal terminations of verbs, as in 
Latin, except where there is an emphasis ; as, dXXd ndv- 
rog real ai) otpei avrrjv, " but you, by all means, shall even 
see her." 

6. The possessive pronouns are only employed when an 
emphasis is required ; in all other cases the personal pro- 
nouns are used in their stead ; as, narrjp rftitiv, " our fa- 
ther" (literally, " the father of us") ; but narr\p rj^erepog, 
"our own father." 

7. A substantive is sometimes put in the genitive, as ia 
apposition with another genitive implied in a possessive 
pronoun ; x as, efcfcoipete fcopai; rov ye gov ocpdaXfiov rov 
Ttpeo6eG)g, " may a raven strike out the eye of you the ambas- 
sador." 

8. The possessive pronoun is sometimes used objec- 
tively ; 2 as, obg nodog, not " thy regret" but " regret for 

1. So in Latin, meet, ipsius causa, where ipsius is in apposition with 
the genitive implied in mea. So, also, nomen meum absenlis, meas pr<z- 
sentis preces" (Cic. Plane. 10, 26). 

2. This is called by the older grammarians the passive use of the pos- 
sessive. Consult Ruddiman, Instit. G. L. ed. Slallb. vol. ii., p. 50. 



236 THE GENITIVE. 

thee;'' ra\ia vovQeri\\iara, "the lessons which thou givest 
me." 

9. The pronoun avrog is often used after ordinal num- 
bers, to show that one person with several others, whose 
number is less by one than the number mentioned, has done 
something ; as, 'Kopivdiov orpaTTjyog r\v ZevonXeidrjg, 
TT£[i7TTog avrog, " Xenoclides was leader of the Corinthians 
along with four others." 

10. The demonstrative pronouns ovrog and ode are gen- 
erally distinguished in this way, that ovrog refers to what 
immediately precedes, and ode to what immediately fol- 
lows. Thus, rrefiipaoa 7j Tojivpig nrjpvica eXeye rdde, 
" Tomyris, having sent a herald, announced as follows j" 
ravra 6e anovoag elire, " having heard these things, he 
said." 

11. The demonstrative pronouns are often used instead 
of the adverbs " here" and " there ;" as, aXk* t/(T onaddv 
ek, 66[iG)v ep^/srac, " but here comes a maidservant out of the 
mansion ;" avrai yap, avrai irXrjoiov $pG)Gtcovo£ \iov, "for 
there, there, they are leaping near me." 

12. The reflexive pronoun eavrov is sometimes used for 
the other reflexive pronouns of the first and second per- 
sons i 1 as, del rjfiag avepeodai eavrovg, " it behooves us to 
ask our own selves ;" el 6' er^rvficog \iopov rbv avrr\g olada, 
''but if you truly know your own fate" 

THE GENITIVE. 2 

1. The verbs el\ii and yiyvo\iai, denoting possession, 
property, part, or duty, require the genitive ; as, rovro to 
Ttediov tjv \iev ixore rCdv Xopaafiiov, " this same plain be- 
l formerly to the Chorasmians ;" rroXXrjg avoiag earl 



1. Some accompanying gesture must be supposed, that may serve to 
express the reference of the pronoun. 

2. The fundamental idea of the genitive is that of separation or ab- 
straction, of going forth, from, or out of anything. 



THE GENITIVE. 237 

■&r}paodaL iteva, " it is the part of great folly to hunt after 
vain things" 

2. The genitive is used with verbs of all kinds, even 
with those which govern an accusative, when the action 
does not refer to the whole object, but only to a part ; as, 
OTTrrjaat upe&v, " to roast some flesh ;" erefiov rrjg 777c, 
" they laid waste a part of the country ;" napoli-ag rrjg $v- 
oag, " having opened the door a little." 

3. On the general principle of reference to a part, the 
genitive is put with verbs that denote " to take hold of" " to 
touch" and also with their opposites, " to let go" " to loose" 
&c. ; as, eXafrovTO rrjg ^ddvrjg, " they took hold of his gir- 
dle ;" el rtg vfiCJv de^cag (3ovXeraL rrjg epyc aipaadat, " if 
any one of you wishes to touch my right hand ;" TT/crd' ettov- 
ca TTCudog ov fiedrjuofjiai, " / will not willingly let go of this 
my child." 

4. On the same principle of a part, the genitive is put 
with the verbs (UfivfjOKSiv, " to remind " \ie\ivr\aBai, " to 
remember ;" XavOaveodai, " to forget" because remember- 
ing and forgetting refer always to particular properties and 
circumstances only, and therefore to parts of the whole. 
Thus, (plXcDV teat irapovrov Kal dnovrcjv fj,£fivnoo, " re- 
member friends loth when present and absent ;" ovde rore 
E7nXrjaojJ,ai avrov, " even then I will not forget him" 

5. The genitive is also put with the verbs " to begin" 
such as apxecv, apxsodai, vnapx^v, &c, because here 
also the reference is only to a part, that is, the commence- 
ment of an action ; as, ap%£TE adutiag, " begin injustice ;" 
urrrjp^av rrjg eXevdepiag dfrdoxj rq f EA/la6% " they made a 
beginning of freedom for all Greece." 

G. Verbs signifying the operations of the senses, such as 
" to hear" " to feel" " to smell" and the like, but not those 
denoting " to see" require the genitive ; l verbs signifying 

1. The genitive is put with these verbs only of the object which pro- 
duces the thing perceived, or of an occurrence of which we perceive only 



238 THE GENITIVE. 

" to see" take the accusative. Thus, iravrbg fiaoLXevc, 
dfcovst, " a king hears everything " o£co jivpov, " / smell of 
myrrh." 

7. Adverbs of place and time require the genitive, be- 
cause the adverb denotes a single point only, but the sub- 
joined definition of place and time designates the whole ; 
as, navra^ov yrjg, " everywhere on earth ;" 6i/>e rr\q rjfiepac, 
" late in the day." 

8. Time when, that is, part of time, is put in the genitive ; 
as, tispovc; rs not y(£i\i&voq, " in both summer and winter" 

9. The material of which anything is made is put in the 
genitive, the thing made being a single object, but the sub- 
joined definition denoting an entire class or kind of materi- 
als, part of which go to compose that object ; as, rbv di(p- 
pov eiroir}Gsv Xa^vpCyv I-vXcjv, " he made the chariot of strong 
wood." 

10. The superlative degree is also followed by a geni- 
tive, this genitive marking the entire class, of which the 
superlative indicates the most prominent as a part or parts ; 
as, e%0L<JTog navrov, " most hated of all;" apiaroi TpG)G)v, 
bravest of the Trojans." 

11. Hence the genitive is put also with verbs, adjectives, 
and adverbs, which are either derived from superlatives, or 
in which merely the idea of preferableness is implied ; as, 
knaXXiorevETO nao&v yvvaatCdv, " she was the handsomest 

single parts. The thing perceived, on the contrary, stands in the accu- 
sative. Hence, for the various construction of these verbs, the following 
rules obtain : 1. If the person alone is named, this stands in the genitive. 
2. If both person and thing are named, the person stands in the genitive 
and the thing in the accusative ; as, tovto J,utcpdTOvg rjKovaa. 3. If 
the thing alone is named, the question then is, whether this is.conceived 
as a simple part which I comprehend with my senses, or as a compound 
whole of which single parts only are perceived ; in the first case the ac- 
cusative stands, in the second the genitive ; as, wc ijadero ra yiyvo/neva, 
" when he perceived what was taking place." On the contrary, always 
aiaddvsadaL upavyrjc, ■&opv6ov, &c, because one can only perceive indi- 
cations of the noise. In like manner, anoveiv ditivc, " to hear a suit;" 
aladdvsadac eTndovlijc, " to perceive a plot ;" but gvvievat ra XzybyLtva^ 
(l to comprehend or under standjwhat is said." 






THE GENITIVE. 239 

of all women ;" dLarrpercELg 3vt]tgjv, " conspicuous among 
mortals ;" e^o^wc ttclvtw, "in a manner surpassing all." 

12. To words of all kinds other words are added in the 
genitive, which show the respect in which the sense of 
these words must be taken ; and, in this case, the geni- 
tive properly signifies " with regard to" or " in respect of;" 
as, vXrjg itojc 6 roirog e%ei ; " how is the place with regard 
to timber ?" ovyyvupov r&v dvdpcjirtvcov afiaprTjfidrov, 
" forgiving with respect to human errors ;" Troppo) rrjg r\kiK- 
iag, "far advanced in years" (properly, " far advanced with 
respect to years"). 

13. Hence all words expressing ideas of relation, which 
are not complete without the addition of another word as 
the object of that relation, take this object in the genitive : 
and to this rule belong in particular the adjectives " expe- 
rienced, ignorant, desirous," and the like, as also the verbs 
" to concern one's self, to neglect, to consider, to reflect, 
to be desirous," &c. Thus, epreipoc fccucajv, " experienced 
in evils ;" dnatdEvrog aperrjc,, " uninstructed in virtue-" 1 tov 
kolvov ayadov enifieXelGdat, " to take care of the common 
good ;" fieyaXoiv EniOvfielv, " to desire great things" 

14. Words signifying plenty or want are followed by a 
genitive, because the term, which expresses of what any- 
thing is full or empty, indicates the respect in which the 
signification of the governing word is taken; as, p,earbg 
Kaniov, "full of evils;" eprjjiog (piXwv, "destitute of 
friends ;" i:Xr\oBr\vai voaov, " to be full of sickness ;" 
deloOai olrcertiv, " to be in want of inhabitants." 

15. The comparative degree is followed by a genitive, 
'because this genitive indicates the respect in which the 
comparative is to be taken ; as, fieifav rrarpog, " greater 
than a father" which properly means, "greater with respect 
to a father." 

1. Hence appears to have arisen the rule found in most grammars, 
that adjectives compounded with a privative govern the genitive. But 
d privative cannot well determine the use of either the genitive or any 
other case. 



240 THE GENITIVE. 

16. All words derived from comparatives, or which in- 
volve a comparison, are followed by the genitive ; as, tjt- 
rdodal rcvog, " to be defeated by any one" (literally, " to be 
less than any one") ; varepalog rrjg ^a%^c, " after the bat- 
tle ;" TcepLyeveoOat rov fiaoLXeug, " to prove superior to the 
king ;" devrepog ovdevog, " second to no one." 

17. All verbs that are equivalent in meaning to a noun 
and verb, and especially those in which the idea of ruling 
is implied, are followed by a genitive ; as, dvdooeiv r&v 
M?]6o)v, " to reign over the Medes" (equivalent to ava% elvai 
-gov Mrjdojv) ; ap%uv dvdp&TTUV, " to rule over men" (equiv- 
alent to apx^v elvai avdpcJTrcov) ; and, in the same manner, 
Kvpieveiv for Kvptog elvai ; rvpavveveiv for rvpavvog elva*, 
&c. 

18. Words indicating value or worth require the genitive ; 
as, epdet iroXXCdV at-ia, " he performs actions equivalent to 
those of many ;" larpbg iroXXCov avrdi-iog, " a physician 
equal in value to many men." 

19. All verbs denoting "to buy," "to sell," "to ex- 
change," &c.-, are followed by a genitive ; as, (bvovvrat 
rag yvvalaag xprjfidrcjv ttoXXCov, " they purchase their wives 

■for much money ,*" encjXovv ttoXXov rolg dXXoig, " they sold 
for a large sum to the rest" 

20. All verbs denoting " to accuse," " to criminate," &c, 
are followed by a genitive ;* as, ypd(pofiat oe (povov, " / ac- 
cuse you of murder ;" 6i&%0[iai ae decXiag, " / will prosecute 
you for cowardice." 

21. The genitive often stands alone in exclamations, 
with and without an interjection, as indicating the cause 
from which the feeling in question originates; as, r Q Zev 
fiacuXev rrjg Xejirorrrrog rCdv (ppevdv ! " Oh supreme Jove, 
the acuteness of his intellect /" "AnoXXov, rov %a<7jjbr]fiarog\ 
" Apollo, what a pair of jaws /" 

1. The genitive here denotes the object of the action. For this same 
reason 'ivnna and v-rrip govern the genitive. 



DATIVE. 241 

DATIVE. 1 

1. The dative stands in answer to the questions to whom 
or what ? for whom or what ? to whose advantage 1 to whose 
disadvantage ? as, edcotcd ooi to (3i6?iiov, " J gave the book 
to thee ;" eneode \loi, 0) nalSeg, "follow me, my children •" 
Emrdrro) aoi rovro, " J enjoin this upon you .;" tieolg dpsa- 
Kec, " he pleases the gods ,*" (plXog etcelvG), " a friend to him ,*" 
dyadbv rq ttoXel, " good for the state" 

2. Words which express the idea of approach, meeting, 
union, or connexion, as well as all verbs implying an action 
which cannot be accomplished without approach to the ob- 
ject, as, to associate, to speak, to converse, to pray, to dis- 
pute, to contend, to vie, to be attentive, and the like, are 
joined with the dative ; as, opoj rj[ilv (3ap6dpovg npoatov- 
rag, " / see barbarians approaching us ;" \jlt] epi£e rolg yov- 
evoiv, " contend not with your parents ;" ev%ovrai, Tract 
tieoig, " they pray to all the gods." 

3. Verbs to rebuke, to blame, to reproach, to envy, to be 
angry, take the dative of the person ; as, Efioi Xotdop?]GErat, 
" he will reprove me;" \le\i§o\ioX rolg apxetv f3ovXo[isvoig, 
" / blame those who wish to rule ;" ov (f)dovelre tovtco, " envy 
not this man ;" rl x a ^ e7 *aLVELg tg3 dspdnovri ; " why art 
thou angry at the attendant ?" 

4. Words implying equality, resemblance, suitableness, 
or the contrary, have the dative case ; as, laog rolg Ig%v- 
polg, " equal to the powerful ;" eomag dovXco, " you resemble 
a slave ;" dvo\LOiog to) rrarpt, " unlike his father ." 

5. In like manner, the dative stands also with 6 avrog, 
because it expresses perfect equality; as, ev tgj avrco 
KivdvvG) rolg cfyavXordroig, " in the same danger with the 
worst ;" rolg avrolg Kvpco onXotg, " in the same arms with 
Cyrus." 

1. The dative serves to designate the more remote object, that is, it 
designates the object which merely participates in an operation, without 
being immediately affected by it, or in which the effect or consequence of 
an action is shown. 

X 



242 DATIVE. 

6. The means by which, and the instrument with which, 
a thing is accomplished, are both put in the dative, since 
this case also serves in Greek to indicate all definitions 
that are mentioned incidentally and secondarily to the main 
object j 1 as, rolv b$QaX\iolv 6pti[iev, " we see with the two 
eyes " ol TroXefiioi ebaXXov Xidoug, nal enaiov ybayjaipaig, 
" the enemy threw with stones and struck with swords" 

7. The motive and cause are put in the dative, and hence 
the verbs " to rejoice" " to be delighted" " to be grieved" 
&-c, govern the object by which the feeling is occasioned 
in the dative ; as, (p66cd anrjXOov, " they departed through 
fear ;" col "xaipovoiv, " they delight in thee ;" XyrrovfJieda 
rovroig, " we are grieved by these things." 

8. The manner and way in which a thing takes place are 
put in the dative ; as, ftta elg ttjv olrccav eloqXdov, " they 
entered into the house by force ,*" navra diereraKTO fierpG) 
Kal t6tt(x), " all things were arranged by measure and by 
place." 

9. The period of time at which a thing takes place, or 
during which a thing continues or exists, is put in the da- 
tive ; as, T%jde rig vvktl, " on this very night ;" rplg kvinr\~ 
aav ravrxi ry rjfispa, " they conquered thrice during this 
same day." 

10. The verb elfii, when put for e%6), " to have" governs 
the dative ; as, oaoig ovtc r\v apyvpog, " as many as had not 
money" 

11. An impersonal verb governs the dative; as, ei-eort 
fioi amevai, " it is lawful for me to depart." 

12. Neuter adjectives in reov govern the person in the 
dative, and the thing in the case of the verb from which 
they are derived ; as, tovto TTOtrjreov sort fiot, " i" must do 
this ,*" rovrov emfieXrjTeov eariv vjmv, " you must take care 
of this." 

1. Hence the verb xpijadai, " to use," "to make use of," takes the 
dative. 



ACCUSATIVE. 243 

ACCUSATIVE. 

1. A verb signifying actively governs the accusative ; as, 
ol r 'EX?i7]veg kvin7\oav rovg ILepoag, " the Greeks conquered 
the Persians." 

2. Other verbs also, which in Latin frequently take the 
object in the dative, or are connected with it by a preposi- 
tion, require in Greek the accusative ; such as verbs signi- 
fying " to benefit" " to injure" and, in general, all which de- 
note an action tending to the advantage or disadvantage of 
a person ;* as, G)(p£?L7}oe rovg ovvovrag, " he benefited those 
who associated with him ,*" 6 /coXafcevoiv rovg (piXovg (3Xdn- 
ret, " he that flutters injures his friends ,*" rificopovvrat rovg 
adiicovg, " they punish the unjust ." 

3. The accusative also occurs in Greek with intransitive 
verbs, when the object which receives the action contained 
in the verb is definitely assigned, as in verbs signifying " to 
go," " to come" " to reach," " to arrive at," &c. Thus, rr\v 
vfjaov d(pUero, " he came to the island ;" TTOpeveaOai odov, 
" to go upon a journey ." 

4. Every verb may take an accusative of a cognate noun ; 
as, fuvdvvevoG) rovrov nivdvvov, " / will encounter this dan- 
ger " 7]odev7]'oav ravrrjV aodeveiav, " they were sick with 
this sickness ;" hm\ii'kovrai rraoav sirLfisXeiav, " they exer- 
cise all care " noXe^ov ixoXE^GoyLtv , " we will wage war" 

5. Many verbs, the action of which admits of more than 
one object, without determining the nearest, have in Greek 
a double accusative, namely, the accusative of the person 
and the accusative of the thing. To these belong verbs 
signifying " to do good or evil to one" " to speak good or evil 
of one," " to ask," " to demand," " to teach" " to put on or 
off" " to take away," " to deprive," li to conceal," &c. ; as, 

1. The verb "KvairEkelv, " to he of use to," always takes the dative ; 
on the contrary, the occurrence of o)(j>eleiv with the dative is rare, and 
confined to the poets ; as, Soph. Antig. 558, uare Tolg fiavovciv utye- 
felv. 



244 ACCUSATIVE. 

na/cd noXXd sopys TpcJag, " he has done many evils to the 
Trojans ;" ay add elnev avrovg, " he said good things of 
them ;" etpero anavrag rov nalda, " he asked all about his 
son ;" rovg \iaQr\rdg edida^e ao)(f)poavv7jv, " he taught his 
disciples continence. ," 

6. Verbs governing two accusatives in the active retain 
one in trie passive, namely, the accusative of the thing ; as, 
GK/rynrpov Ti\idg re aTTOOvXarai, " he is despoiled of his scep- 
tre and honours ;" eTraidevOr] \iovoikt\v nal prjTopiicqv, " he 
was taught music and rhetoric^ 

7. When, in addition to the whole object, which receives 
the action of the verb, particular specification is also made 
of a part, in which this action is principally shown, both 
the whole and part stand, especially with the poets, as 
proximate objects in the accusative ; as, \iiv lovra (3aXs 
crrjdog, " he wounded him, as he came on, in the breast ;" rpo- 
fiog vixrjXde yvla eKaorov, " trembling came upon each one 
in his limbs beneath."" 

8. Since the accusative serves always to designate the 
object upon which an action immediately passes, it fre- 
quently stands also with intransitive verbs and adjectives 
containing a general expression, and indicates the part or 
more definite object to which this expression must be prin- 
cipally referred. This is called the accusative of nearer 
definition, and is to be expressed in English by different 
prepositions, especially by in, as to, with respect to. 1 Thus, 
rbv ddfcrvXov dXyoJ rovrov, " I feel a pain in this finger ;' 
Trodag (bavg 'AxtXXevg, "Achilles swift as to his feet ;" 2i>- 
pog xjv ttjv Trarptda, " he was a Syrian as to his native 
country •" rb dsvdpov Trevrrjicovra nodtiv eotl to vipog, 
" the tree is fifty feet in height^ 

9. Time how long is put in the accusative ; as, boov %po- 
vov av iroXefiog %, "for as long a time as there may be war;" 

1. It is generally assumed that Kara, or some other preposition, is un- 
derstood in such constructions, but this is not correct. 



VERBS PASSIVE. 245 

Kal %#ec 6e aal rpirrp) rjfiepav to avrb rovro enparrov, 
" they did this same thing during both yesterday and the day 
previous" 

10. Distance and space are put in the accusative ; as, 
arrexei drcrcb rjjiepcov odov diro Ba6vXC)vog, " it is distant a 
journey of eight days from Babylon." 

VERBS PASSIVE. 

1. Verbs of a passive signification are followed in Greek 
by a genitive, governed by imo, and, etc, rrapd, or ixpoq ; 
as, 6 vovg vnb olvov StacpdeLperat, " the understanding is 
impaired by wine ;" dXXai yvoj/iac dcp' kfcdorcov eXsyovro, 
" other opinions were expressed by each." 

2. The dative, however, is sometimes employed by the 
poets instead of the genitive ; as, '' 'AxlXXtjI kdd\ir\, " he was 
subdued by Achilles." 

3. The dative is very frequently put with the perfect 
passive of verbs, whose perfect active is not much used ; 
as, ravra XeXeKrat rjpilv, " these things have been said by 
us" for XeXox® ravra. 

INFINITIVE. 

1. The infinitive mood is used to express the cause or 
end of an action ; as, -&eXo) adetv, " / wish to sing." 

2. The infinitive, with the neuter of the article prefixed, 
is used as a species of verbal noun ; and very frequently 
the article is thus appended to an entire clause, of which 
the infinitive forms a part; as, to Xvelv, " the loosening ;" 
to sxeiv %pr]p,aTa, " the having money." 

3. The infinitive in Greek is governed by adjectives, 
and denotes the respect in which the idea of the adjective 
is to be applied j 1 as, luavol repnsLV (paCvovrai, " they ap- 
pear calculated to delight " oh deivog tart Xeyeiv, dXX' dd- 

1. This is imitated in Latin by the poets ; as, idoneus delectare, utilis 
facere. In prose, however, the gerund with a preposition must be em- 
ployed ; as, idoneus ad delectandum, &c. 
X2 



246 INFINITIVE. 

vvarog atyav, " he is not able in speaking, but unable to keep 
silent" 

4. The infinitive is used with &ote, more rarely with a>c, 
to express the consequence of an event indicated by the 
leading verb ; as, ^tXoTt\i6rarog tjv o Kvpog, &ore Trdvra 
vnojielvac rov enatvelodat evena, " Cyrus was very ambi- 
tious, so as to endure all things for the sake of being praised." 

5. The infinitive is frequently used, in short intermediate 
propositions, sometimes with, sometimes without wc, to in- 
dicate an aim, or else to qualify what precedes ; as, wc 
enog elnslv, "so to speak;" airXCx; elnelv, " to speak plain- 
ly ;" boov efts eldevat, " as far as I know;" ejiot doicetv, 
" as appears to me." 

6. The nominative, and not the accusative, is put with 
the infinitive whenever the reference is to the same per- 
son that forms the subject of the leading verb ; l as, ecpaa- 
ksv elvat Aide vlog, " he said he was the son of Jupiter ;" 
enetaa avrovg elvat deog, u I persuaded them that I was a 
god." 

7. The genitive and dative sometimes follow the infini- 
tive by a species of attraction ; as, edeovro avrov elvat 
npodvfiov, " they besought him to be zealous ;" dog fiot (pav- 
rjvat d^tcp, " grant unto me to appear worthy." 

8. The infinitive elvat, with and without an article, is 
put absolutely with adjectives, adverbs, or prepositions, 
with their case ; as, ercibv elvat, " willingly ;" to ovfiriav 
elvat, "generally ;" rb fiev Tr\\iepov elvat, " to-day at least " 
to Kara tovto elvat, " with respect to this." 

9. The infinitive is frequently put for the imperative, 
particularly in the poets ; 2 as, tiapocov vvv, Atoprjdeg, eni 
Tp&eoot \id%eoQat, " taking courage, now, oh Diomede, fight 

1. The accusative, however, is joined with such infinitives whenever 
emphasis is required ; as, TLpolaog £v6/j,i& eovtov elvai iravruv b"k6c6- 
tcitov, " Croesus thought that he himself was the happiest of all men!'' 
{Herod. 1, 34). 

2. Some understand, but without any necessity, an ellipsis of some 
verb, such as bpa or dog, in such constructions. 



PARTICIPLE. 247 

against the Trojans " (pdctfceiv Mvtcrjvac opav, " say that 
thou seest Mycenm." 

10. The infinitive of the present, future, and aorists, but 
more particularly of the future, when preceded by the verb 
jwe/lAa), expresses the future, and answers to the future par- 
ticiple active in Latin with the verb sum ; as, [leXXco ypd- 
(peiv f " I am about to write" (scripturus sum) ; fieXXrjoG) 
ypdcpetv, " / will be about to write' 1 '' {scripturus ero) ; e^eA- 
Xr\oa ypddeiv, " i" was about to write" (scripturus jut). 

PARTICIPLE. 

1. The participle is put after a verb, and in the nomina- 
tive case, when the reference is to some state as existing 
at the time on the part of the subject, or to some action as 
being performed by it. 1 Thus, olda ^V7]rog gjv, " / know 
that I am a mortal ;" (patverai 6 vdfiog 7\\idc (3Xdnro)v, " the 
law appears to be injuring us ;" navoaode ddiKOvvrsg, iC cease 
acting wrongfully." 

2. If, however, the subject belonging to the participle 
stands with the principal verb as a proximate object in the 
accusative, the participle also stands in the accusative ; as, 
ol 'Ad7]vaZoL eiravoav avrbv arparr]yovvra, " the Athenians 
caused him to cease being a commander ;" ovg dv bp& rd 
dyadd rrotovvrag, " whomsoever I may see doing the things 
that are good" 

3. If the subject belonging to the participle stands with 
the principal verb as the remote object in the genitive or 
dative, the participle, in like manner, takes the genitive or 
dative ; 2 as, ^adofirjv avrcov olojievo)v elvat ao(pO)rdrG)v, u I 
perceived that they fancied themselves very wise " ovSsitots 

1. This again is a species of attraction, and proceeds, as in other 
cases, from the circumstance of a dependant proposition having no sub- 
ject of its own. 

2. When a reflexive pronoun stands with the verb, the participle can 
be put in either of two cases, according as it is referred to the subject 
contained in the verb or pronoun ; as, avvoida kfiavTci) ootybc &v, " I am 
conscious to myself of being wise ;" aavrti cvvridsiq adinovvrc, " you 
were conscious to yourself of acting wrongfully" 



248 PARTICIPLE. 

ueTefjbsXrjGe pot oiyrjaavri, " I never repented of having been 
silent" 

4. The verb " to be ashamed" takes the participle when 
the action of which one is ashamed is performed ; the in- 
finitive when the action is declined through shame ; as, 
al(j%vvo[iai, notrjaag, " / am ashamed to have done it ;" ala- 
%vvo\iai epeaOat, " jF am ashamed to ask" 

5. The verbs " to commence" li to begin" take the parti- 
ciple when the assigned state has already begun to take 
place ; the infinitive when it is just about to take place ; as, 
6 %eifi(ov 7]p%aro yevoiievoc, " the winter was come on " 6 
X£C[iG)v TJpxsro ytyveadat, " the winter was beginning to come 
on" (i. e., it approached, but was not yet arrived). 

6. The verbs " to hear" and " to learn" take the parti- 
ciple when a fact is adduced which we perceive with our 
own ears ; the infinitive when something is assigned which 
we hear from the narration of others ; as, rptovaa rbv Atj- 
fioodsvj] Xeyovra, " / heard Demosthenes speak ;" drcovG) rbv 
Ar][M)od£V7) Xsyuv, " / hear (i. e., I am told) that Demosthe- 
nes says" 

7. The verb (paivsodai takes the participle in the signi- 
fication " to be evident" " to be manifest " but the infinitive 
in the signification " £o seem" " to have the appearance" 
as, e<paiv£TO tikaieiv, '•'■he was just as though he wept;" e0- 
aivsTO tcXaioyv, " he evidently wept" 

8. Verbs signifying " to declare" " to announce" " to 
show" take the participle when something is announced or 
shown as a fact ; but the infinitive when it is assigned 
that something may or is said to be. Thus, dTnjyysXXero 
TLoTtdata iroXioptcovfiEVT], " Potidcea was announced to be in a 
state of siege" (when it is certain that it is besieged) ; an- 
rjyyeXXsTO Yloridaia TTOAiopttelodaL, "Potidcea was reported 
to be in a state of siege" (when intelligence is given merely 
resting on report). 

[ 9. To some verbs which merely express subordinate 



PARTICIPLE. .249 

definitions of an action, the Greeks add the participle of the 
verb which expresses the principal action. Such verbs 
are rvyxdvo), Xavddvoj, (pddvo), dtareXeo), <fcc, which, in 
translation, are sometimes rendered by adverbs. 1 Thus, 
eTV%ov napovrsg, " they chanced to be present ,•" eXadsv ev- 
spyerojv, " he conferred kindnesses secretly ;" (pddvei ixoidv, 
" he does it before another ,*" dtarereXefca (psvyojv, " / have 
always avoided." 

10. The participle in intermediate propositions is either 
explanatory, and is then expressed by the relative who, 
which ; or, 2. it denotes relations of time, and is expressed 
by the English particles when, while, after, &c. ; or, 3. it 
denotes relations of cause, like the particles because, since, 
as ; or, 4. it expresses condition, like the particles if, al- 
though. Thus, %aXzT;6v sort Xeyetv Tipbc yaorepa, G)ra 
ova exovoav, " it is a difficult thing to speak to a stomach 
which has no ears ;" ddvvarov noXXa rexvufievov dvdpomov 
ndvra naX&c iroielv, " it is impossible for a man when try- 
ing many things to do all well ;" ddiKsl ItCOKparrjc ov vo\ii- 
£g)v -fteovc elvat, " Socrates violates the laws, because he does 
not think that there are any gods ,-" devdpa [lev rfi7]6evra 
Ta%iuc (pverat, " trees, although lopped of their branches, 
quickly grow again." 

11. A participle and verb are to be translated as two 
verbs with the copulative conjunction ; as, rf\v olttiav Trpt- 
dfjtevoc dirijXde, " he bought the house and departed." 

12. A participle, with a substantive, &c, whose case 
depends on no other word, is put in the genitive absolute ; 2 

1. With a participle rvyxavo signifies forte ; Tiavdavto, clam or impru- 
dens ; and (f>8dvo),prce. The primitive meaning of Qddvo is " to get be- 
forehand,'''' " to get the start of." The verb rvyxdvo is often used in 
the manner indicated by the rule, when it is impossible to be expressed 
in translation. For the Greeks, in order to designate the absence of hu- 
man intention and will, very frequently join it with those verbs also which, 
without it, express a mere occurrence of nature or of chance ; as, eri^e 
davuv, " he was dead;" rvyx&vovaLV e%ovTiQ, " they have." 

2. If a longer historical period is to be assigned by this genitive, the 
preposition errt is usually added ; as, errl Kvpov fiaaikzvovroq, " under 
the reign of Cyrus" i. e., as long as Cyrus reigned. 



25U PARTICIPLE. 

as, ekslvov ehrovrog, irdvreg eoiyov, " he having spoken, all 
were silent." 

13. As the dative also is frequently used in Greek for 
definitions of time, and to assign the cause, datives absolute 
also occur, though much more rarely than the genitive f 
as, Tvepuovri, ro> evmvrcp, tl as the year came to a close ;" 
elpyop,svoig avrolg rr\g ftaXaoorig, " they being cut off from 
the sea." 

14. Accusatives absolute stand in Greek only in those 
cases where, in relating another's actions, the narrator as- 
signs by conjecture the motive which influenced the agent. 
The participle is then accompanied by the particles tig, 
are, tjorrep, or (bg av, and the use of the accusative must 
be explained elliptically, as dependant upon a verb " to 
suppose" " to believe" " to imagine" which is indicated in 
the particles wc, &e. ; as, ^v^sto rcpbg rovg tieovg dirXoJg 
rdyadd dcdovai, d)g rovg tieovg KaXkicra eldorag, onola 
dyaOd eortv, " he prayed the gods simply to give him the 
things that were good, since (in his belief) the gods know 
best what things are good." 

15. If in an intermediate proposition one of the relations, 
which are otherwise designated by genitives absolute, is to 
be expressed by the participle of an impersonal verb, this 
participle then stands in its absolute form, as a nominative 
absolute. 2 Thus, did tl fieveig, e^bv dntevaL ; " why do you 
remain, when it is allowed you to depart ?" 6 d' e/ibg iraXg 
(3aXo)v, ovdsv dsov, Kara6dXXet rbv dpurov, " but my son, 
having thrown, what ought not to have been done, strikes down 
the boar." 

1. Care must, however, be taken not to consider passages of ancient 
authors as proofs of this usage, where the dative can by any means be 
explained in a dependant sense. 

2. The nominative absolute is also used in impersonal phrases formed 
with ecrrc and a neuter adjective, where a participial construction enters ; 
as, dUcuov bv, '• it being just ;" advvarov 6v, " as it is impossible." 



251 



PROSODY. 1 



1. Prosody (jrpoocddia), in its common acceptation at the 
present day, treats of the quantity of syllables, or the time 
occupied in pronouncing them. 

2. In the ancient grammarians, irpoocpSca applies also to 
accent and breathings. 

3. The vowels e and o are short by nature ; 7] and (*) are 
long by nature ; and a, i, v, are termed doubtful. 

4. When a vowel is said to be short by nature, the mean- 
ing is, that it is short by its natural pronunciation, being 
equivalent merely to one short time. On the other hand, 
a vowel long by nature is long by its natural pronunciation, 
being equal to two short times. Thus i] is equivalent to ee, 
and o) to oo. 

5. Hence it follows, that the short vowel e has r\ for its 
corresponding long one ; and the short vowel o, in like 
manner, has G) for its long. But in the case of a, i, v, there 
is no distinct mark or letter by which the eye can tell at 
the instant whether these vowels are long or short, and 
hence they are called doubtful. 

6. It must be carefully borne in mind, however, that, by 
actual usage, every syllable in any particular case always 
has a definite quantity, either long or short ; and that, when 
we speak of doubtful syllables, we do not mean that they 
have anything doubtful in their nature, or wavering between 
long and short as regards the same word ; but only that they 
have no corresponding long or short marks by which the 
eye can detect their quantity at a glance. 

1. For a more enlarged view of this subject, consult the author's larger 
work on Greek Prosody. 



252 position. 

7. The quantity of syllables is determined by various 
methods : 

I. POSITION. 

1. A short or doubtful vowel before two consonants or a 
double letter is almost always long ; as, oreXXo, o\i\ia, av- 
rdyo), rpdrre^a, d\id^a, dlipa. 

2. These two consonants may belong to the same word 
with the vowel ; as, eonepog, or one of them may belong 
to the same word, and the other to the succeeding word ; 
as, tg)v dfiodev ye, tied ftvyarep Acog, or both may be found 
at the beginning of the following word ; as, avdpa $V7]tov 
eovra. 

3. In scanning the dramatic writers, the following excep- 
tions to this rule of position must be carefully noted. 

I. A short vowel before a soft mute (tt, k, t), or an as- 
pirate ((f), %, 6) followed by a liquid, is much rather 
left short than lengthened by the Attic poets. 

II. A short vowel before a middle mute (fi, y, 6), followed 
by p, is short in the comic writers, but in tragedy is 
mostly long. 

III. A short vowel before a middle mute, followed by 
any liquid except p, is almost always long. In Eurip- 
ides such syllables are always long ; but in iEschylus, 
Sophocles, and Aristophanes, they are sometimes short. 

IV. The tragic writers occasionally leave a vowel short 
before the two liquids fiv. 

4. The epic writers, such as Homer, &c, mostly avoid 
the shortening of syllables before a mute and liquid, and 
employ it chiefly when the word cannot in any other man- 
ner be adapted to the measure. Thus, in the case of such 
forms as Zdfcvvdog, ZeXeia, Stcdfiavdpog, Giceizapvov, &c, a 
preceding short vowel in another word remains short, not- 
withstanding the double consonant Z and the two mutes gk, 
following immediately after. 



ONE VOWEL PEFORE ANOTHER. 253 

II. ONE VOWEL BEFORE ANOTHER. 

1. One vowel before another or before a diphthong is 
generally short, unless lengthened by poetic license or 
some other peculiar cause ; as, ayXaog, rjepcog. 

2. But the Greek poets, especially the epic, often lengthen 
vowels, even when another follows, by the aid of the arsis ; 
and this takes place not only in doubtful vowels, but also 
in those which are naturally short. 

3. By arsis, which is called by some ccesura, is meant the 
stress of the voice that is brought to bear upon a particular 
syllable in each foot during the reciting of a line. In the 
dactyl it falls on the first syllable ; in the iambus on the 
last ; and in the trochee again on the first ; its place being 
regulated by the long syllable. 

4. The spondee leaves the place of the arsis undeter- 
mined ; and this becomes settled only by the nature of the 
verse in which the spondee is employed. Thus, in dactylic 
and trochaic measure, the arsis falls on the first syllable of 
the spondee ; but in iambic on the last. 

5. The following are instances of lengthening by arsis. 
Thus, oieg (Od. 9, 425) ; /card Xi7rdp7]v (II, 6, 64) ; 6s pe- 
Xi7]v (11. 20, 322), &c. 

6. In the epic writers, long vowels and diphthongs are 
mostly short at the end of words when the next word be- 
gins with a vowel; 1 as, iyievr} ev ftevdeacnv (II. 1, 358) 
afupti dfitig (lb. 23) ; dexQal anocva (lb. 57). 

7. On the contrary, the long vowel retains its natural 



1. The principle on which this depends is easily explained. The ij 
in T/fif.vrj, for example, is equal to ee, and one of these epsilons being 
supposed to be elided before the initial vowel of the following word, the 
other epsilon remains, of course, short by nature. In other words, the 
&utl vowel of r}fxsv7] loses, as it were, a portion of its natural length by 
the sinking of the voice and by the vowel immediately following it. So 
the u in autbu is equivalent to two omicrons, one of which it loses be- 
fore the following vowel, while the other remains short. In like man- 
ner, the diphthong ai in de%dcu is supposed to lose a vowel. 



254 DIALECT. 

measure when it falls in the arsis of the foot. The follow- 
ing Homeric verse contains examples of both kinds. 1 

'Hfierepti kvl ot/ccj, kv "ApjE'c, rrfkoQi -Karpriq. (II. 1, 30.) 

III. CONTRACTION. 

1. All contracted syllables are long ; as, Ipog for lepog ; 
bcplg for bcpteg, &c. 

2. Two vowels forming two syllables are frequently con- 
tracted into one in poetry ; as in %pvaiu> (11. 1, 15), where 
ew forms a single syllable. This is frequent in the dra- 
matic writers, where the syllables are in different words, 
and is called synizesis ; as, \lt\ eldevat (Hippol. 1331), where 
the 7] and et are to be pronounced as one syllable ; r) ev- 
yeveiav (Eurip. Electr. 1104). 

IV. DIALECT. 

1 . The Doric a is long ; 'as, (f)d{j,d, yvvd, Alvsid. And 
so is the a in the uncontracted form ao of the genitive ; as, 
y A.rpeiddo. 

2. The iEolic a is short ; as, vv[i(pd, ttoltJto,, KOfxrjrd. 

3. In the Ionic dialect a is generally short in the penult 
of the perfect tenses, such as yeyda ; and always short in 
the third person plural of the passive in drat and dro ; as, 
edrai, 6e6jj,r]dTO. 

4. The Ionic third person plural in act is always long ; 
as, sdac, ridedai. 

5. The Ionic writers double the a and some other con- 
sonants at pleasure ; a license which the Attic poets never 

1. Here, after one of the vowels has been supposed to be elided, and 
a single short vowel remains, this latter, being in the arsis of the foot, 
receives the stress of the voice, and becomes long again. Thvis, in the 
foot p(f) evi, the syllable pcj is in the arsis, and hence, though one of the 
omicrons composing the omega is supposed to be cut off before the ini- 
tial vowel of kvl, and only a single omicron remains, that omicron is nev- 
ertheless lengthened by the stress of the voice falling upon it. On the 
other hand, in the foot o'lku ev, the omega is not in the arsis, and hence, 
after this vowel has lost one of its component omicrons before the next 
word, there is no stress of the voice upon the other omicron, and there- 
fore it remains short. 



COMPOSITION. 255 

used, either in tragedy or comedy. Thus, in Homer, we 
have orrjdeooiv for arrjOeoiv ; oTmorepog for onorepog, &c. 

V. DERIVATION. 

1. Derivatives for the most part follow the quantity of 
the words from which they are derived ; as, vikclg) from 
vlkt] ; Tl/jido) from rl\ir\. 

2. But many derivatives from verbs differ in quantity 
from the present tenses of these verbs, as being immediate- 
ly formed from the perfect passive, with a short penult. 
Thus, fcpLTTjg and Kplaig, though the verb be uplvo, because 
they are immediately formed from ninpirat, ftenpiGai. 1 

VI. COMPOSITION. 

1 . Compound words generally follow the quantity of their 
primitives ; as, arlpog from rl\ir\ ; p,v(mapG)v from [ivg, gen. 
\tvog and rrdpcov. 

2. The privative a is commonly short ; as, aepyog, deKGjv, 
adv/iog, but dddvarog and aKa\iarog are excepted, and, on 
account of the number of short syllables that follow, and 
which would make the words otherwise difficult to employ 
in verse, have the initial a always long. 

3. The particles 6a, £a, apt, epi, and Svg, are short ; as, 
6d^>oiv6g, %adeog, apTdettceTog, epLnvdrjg, 6voai\q. 

VII. INCREASE OF NOUNS. 
1. A in the increment of nouns is generally short; as, 
au)fia, arog ; itpeag, arog ; vetcrap, apog ; \iiXav, dvog, Sic. 

Exceptions. 
1. All increments in avog are long except rdXavog and 
fieXavog ; as, Tirdv, avog ; TLdv, dvog. 

1. In the same way, StarpiBa, from SisrpiSov, the second aorist of 
8ia,Tpi6o ; and irapafvx^ fr° m napfyvxov, the second aorist of napa- 
fv X Q. 



256 INCREASE OF NOUNS. 

2. All increments in anog, from nominatives in a^pure, are 
long; as, ola%, anog ; pvat;, dicog ; <pXva%, dicog, &c. 

3. A is long in the dative plural of nouns, &c, that have 
a long penult in the genitive singular ; as, yiyag, av- 
rog, dot ; rvipag, avrog, dot, &c. But those that are 
syncopated in the singular have the a short ; as, dv- 
dpdoi, Trarpdai, &c. 

2. I is short in the increment of neuter nouns ; as, [ieXl, 
Xrog ; and in masculines and feminines which have the 
genitive in Log, idog, or irog ; as, ixoXig, log ; epig , Idog ; 
X^P^i frog. But aipig, (3aX6cg, ttapig, KV7]\iig % ocppayig, and 
several others, are excepted. 

3. I is long in the increment of masculine and feminine 
nouns which have two terminations in the nominative ; as, 
deXcpig or deXcplv, Ivog ; durig or clktiv, Ivog. 

4. I is also long in the increment of monosyllables ; as, 
#n>, ftlvog ; Ig, Ivog ; Xlg, Xlrog ; excepting, however, rig, 
rlvog ; and Alg, Alog. 

5. I is also long in nouns in ug, Idog ; Lip, Inog ; i%, lyog ; 
and i%, Ittog ; as, bpvig, Idog ; t£ttl%, lyog ; fidan^, lyog 
( " a lash") ; (poivi%, lnog. Homer, however, has Oprjlfcsg 
always short. 

6. But i is generally short in nouns in Lip, l6og ; and l£, 
l%og ; as, ^epwi/), l6og ; #pt£, rplxog ; fidoTit;, Ixog, " a gum" 

7. T is short in the increment of monosyllables in vc, 
vog ; as, dpvg, dpvog ; fivg, fivog. 

8. T is also short in the increment of neuters in v ; as, 
ddfcpv, vog ; and in the increment of masculines and femi- 
nines in vg and vp ; as, viavg, vog ; IXvg, iXvog ; £%#vc, 
l%Qvog ; and also in the neuter noun nvp, irvpog. But 6a- 
6vg, vdog and K<x>}ivg, vOog, must be excepted. 

9. T is generally short in the increment of nouns in vi- 
and vip ; as, bvvt;, vxog ; XdXvip, vdog ; except doidv%, 
VKog ; KOKttvi;, vyog ; K.r\pv%, vnog ; ktjv!-, vicog ; yvip, vnog ; 
ypvip, vnog ; while Be6pvi- has either VKog or VKog. 



INCREASE OF VERBS. 257 

10. Nouns of two terminations, in vg and vv, have v long 
I in the increment ; as, $6pitvg, or Qopicvv, vvog, 

VIII. INCREASE OF VERBS. 

1. The quantity of the penult in the present and imper- 
fect remains the same through all the voices and moods ; as, 
tcplvo), 'iftpZvov, tcplve, tcpZvoLpii, npZvu), KpZveiv, fcpZvuv, rcpZ- 

VOflCU, £KpZv6fl7]V, KpZvOV, &C. 

2. Most tenses have the same quantity in the penult as 
those from which they are formed ; as, erimov, tvttCj, erv- 

7T7JV, TV1T7]O0[iat, TeTVTCa, ETSTVTTSIV. 

3. Verbs in d^o), i£g), and v£o), are made short in the fu- 
ture ; as, aprrd^G), dacj ; vofiL^G), low ; kXv£g>, kXvgg). 

4. Verbs in aw, where aw is preceded by a vowel, and 
all verbs in paw, have the penult of the future long ; as, eda), 
mod) ; opdo), aoG) ; Spdo), doo). 

5. Verbs in do, when preceded by a consonant other 
than p, have the penult of the future short ; as, ando), doo ; 
yeXdo), dacj. 

6. Liquid verbs, or those ending in Xg), fio, vo, pw, 
shorten the penult of the future, but in the first aorist active 
they invariably take either a long vowel or a diphthong ; as, 
iM/lAw, -&dXCJ, Wr\Xa; reXXo), reXti, eretXa-, (patvo), (pavoj, 
ecpTjva ; Sapdvvo), SapOvvcJ, eddpdvva. 

7. Verbs in «•), not proceeding from roots in £g>, are made 
long in the future ; as, kvXZg), Zgg) ; kovZg), Zau). But eaOio) 
has the i everywhere short. 

8. Dissyllabic verbs in vg) are for the most part long in 
the future and aorists ; as, 6vo), dvao), edvoa ; rpixo, rpvao), 
erpvaa. Except tttvco, tttvog), enrvaa ; icvo, kvog), envaa ; 
and one or two others. 

9. Polysyllabic verbs in vo), in the same manner, are for 
the most part long in the penult of the future and aorist ; as, 
ioXVG), iaftvou), ioxvoa ; daitpvG), dafcpvao), edatcpvaa. 

Y2 



258 INCREASE OF VERBS. 

10. But polysyllables in voj are for the most part short ; 
as, dvvco, dvvGO) ; dpvo), dpvao) ; dcpvo), dcpvoo). 

11. Verbs in vco, which have lengthened forms in v{il, 
for the most part shorten the doubtful vowel ; as, deiitvvb), 
edeiKvvov ; fityvvo), efilyvvov. The verbs (f>vo) and dixo 
are not exceptions to this rule, since they do not furnish 
complete forms in v\ii, but only in the second aorist. 

12. Polysyllables in v\ii have the v everywhere short, 
except in the singular number of the present tense active, 
and the third person plural of the same tense and voice ; as, 
£evyvv[M, QvyvvoL ; but ^evyvvjxev, &vyvvre, ^evyvvvai, 
&c. 

13. On the other hand, dissyllables in v\ii have the v 
everywhere long ; as, dvdi, dvvai, edvre, &c. 

14. The penult of the second future and second aorist 
is always short ; as, da-fiti, Aa#w, upvtd, XircC) ; eda/iov, 
ehadov, eupvbov, eXirrov. With the single exception of the 
verb ttXtjggg), which, in the epic dialect, retains the long 
vowel in the penult ; as, enXrjyov, ETcXrjyriv. 

15. The third person plural in aai, and the feminine par- 
ticiple in aaa, are always long ; as, XeXoinaoL, nercpixpaoi, 
lardoi ; Tvipaea, ypdipdoa, &c. 

16. The augment, which, in verbs beginning with v or c, 
consists merely in lengthening this vowel, makes, of course, 
the initial syllable of the historical tenses long ; as, lkstsvo), 
Zfcerevov, iKerevoa. 

17. The doubtful vowel in the penult of the perfect ac- 
tive strictly follows the measure of the root in the present. 
Hence the middle syllable is short in most forms which 
have a in the present ; as, ypdcpG), yeypacpa ; but it fluctu- 
ates in those with t and v ; as, Tpl6o), Terplcpa, but plnrG), 
eppl<pa ; and again, kvittg), tcstcvcpa ; but Kpimro), K£fcpv<pa. 

18. The perfect middle, with the exception of those which 
have a in the root, and change it into o (as rpeipG), erpdcpov, 
rerpo(pa), has usually a long vowel in the penult ; as, ayo, 



DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT. 259 

" I hreak" perfect middle edya. So avddvo), edda ; upd- 
£g), fcs/cpaya ; piysod, epplya ; rpL^o) f rerplya ; (pptaaG), Tre- 
(frplica, &c. But TT£<ppdda and some others are found short, 
and, in old forms, the first vowel was shortened by position 
after rejecting the intermediate consonant ; as, (3e6da^ ys- 
yda, detdta, iretpva. 

19. Perfects with what is called the Attic reduplication 
have usually, in polysyllabic verbs, a short vowel in the pe- 
nult ; as, dXetcpG), dXrj?U(pa ; opvaao), op&pvxa, &c. Still, 
however, in Ionic poets, forms of this kind are occasionally 
lengthened; as, elXrjXovda, vttsij,vt]jj(,vks (II. 22, 491). 

20. When a is inserted in the third person plural of the 
perfect or pluperfect, or of the optative, it is always short ; 
as, opupexdro, ttzaXidTai, ireidoLdro, &c. 

21. The reduplication before the root of verbs in \ii is 
short ; as, TWrjfit, 6i6o)fit. 

22. In verbs in \ii the a is always short ; as, lordrov, 
lardjiev, &c. Except in the third person plural in dot, 
and in the masculine and feminine participles ; as, laram, 
iordg, lardua. 

IX. DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT. 
As a general rule, it may be laid down that a doubtful 
vowel in the penult of Greek words is generally short. 
Some particular exceptions, however, will here be noted. 1 

I. Long a in the penult. 
1 . In drjp and compounds ; ILrotefiatg, Avtcduv, Ma^acov, 
Uoaecddoyv, and the like ; Xdog and derivatives ; vdog, 
alt-, and compounds ; and in verbs in dw, when aw is 
preceded by an £ or the letter p ; as, eaco, irepdo), dpdo), 
with their compounds. Still, however, there are sev- 
eral exceptions ; as, rcvKdcj, Ti[idG), kpvdpidto, fisididcjf 
oiydG), ou*)ndG), &c, in which do) is not preceded by 
an e or the letter p. 
1 . These exceptions are noted more fully in the larger Prosody. 



260 DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT. 

2. In Itcdvo and compounds. So, also, in Ki%dvid and 
(pOdvo) with Homer and the epic poets, but taxdvG) 
and (pddvcj in the Attic tragic writers. 

3. In all derivatives from verbs in do) pure and pdu ; as, 
dea^a, dedoig, dedrog ; 6pd[ia, opdaig, opdrog ; idfia, 
idoig, Idrpog, &c. 

4. In names of nations and proper names ; as, 'AcmT^c, 
ZnapTtdTTjg, TeyedrTjg. And also in the feminines 
formed from them ; as, 'Koidrig, MidedTtg. Add like- 
wise names of rivers, mountains, and islands ; as, Ev- 
(ppdrrjg, ~Nubd-r)g, Aevfcdrrjg, &c. But forms of this 
kind proceeding from short roots have the short vowel j 
as, b.ak\idrr\g^ TaXdT?]g, &c. 

II. Long i in the penult. 

1. I in the penultimate is long in Homeric feminines, 
such as aspylr], adv/ilr], amorlr], &c, where the Attics 
have dpyca, aOvfua, airLorla, &c. But avla and ica- 
Xla are long in both Homeric and Attic Greek, the 
Homeric form being dvir\ and KaXir]. Another term, 
Kovia (Horn, kovltj), has the penult common in Ho- 
meric Greek, but in the singular more frequently long, 
in the plural always short. In the tragic writers it oc- 
curs thrice, and each time with the penult short. 

2. I is long in proper names in lg)v, which shorten the 
vowel in the genitive ; as, 'AiMpluv, AoXlov, Uavdloyv, 
gen. TLavdiovog. On the contrary, those remain short 
which take the long vowel in the genitive ; as, Bovtco- 
Xi(x>v, 'H.etlg)v, Olvomcov, gen. Oivoniajvog. 

3. Comparatives in lov have the i long in Attic, but short 
elsewhere ; as, yXvfcloiv, ftaiclcjv, &c. 

4. I is long in the penult of verbs in lcj, not proceeding 
from roots in £<*> > as > <p6l<*i, %plu, rcplG), kvXlg), &c. 
But those which had originally a £ in the root are 
short ; as, drlcj, fxaoTLG), to which add sadla) and dicj, 
though not from such roots. 



DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT. 261 

5. I is long in the penult of verbs in ivo ; as, kXlvg), upl- 
vo), ttlvg), oplvco, &c . Except rlvo and (pdcvo), which 
are long in Homer, but short in Attic. 

6. I is long in nouns in lttj, irrjg, trig ; as, 'A0po6n-?/, 
'AfMfiLTplrrj, 6o)[j,aTLTig, TcoXlTTjg, 6irXlr7]g, &c. Ex- 
cept, however, Kplrrjg, and other derivatives from the 
perfect passive with a short penult. 

III. Long v in the penult. 

1. T is common in the penult of verbs in vg). Some, 
however, occur more frequently with the .long penult ; 
as, loxvo), dafcpvo), %vg), -dvo), Xvo) ; others, again, are 
found more commonly with the short penult ; as, j3pvo, 
apvc), dprvoj, detuvvG), ttXtjOvg), &c. 

2. T is long in most verbals in vp,a, from verbs in vg) ; 
as, -&v[xa, nvp,a, \v\ia, dprvf^a, [irjvvfia ; except, how- 
ever, epvfia, rcXviia, pvfia, " a river " <fcc, which are 
invariably short. 

3. T L long in -&vp,og, " animus" and its compounds, 
dOvp,og, padvfxog, &c. But -dv^og, " thymus" has the 
penult short. 

4. T is long in the plural cases of the pronoun av ; as, 
vfxelg, vfitiv, vplv, v\idg. 

5. T is long in verbs in vvg) ; as, evdvvo), drpvvoj, ttXv- 
vgj, &c, but not in the future; as, evdvvu), orpvvCJ. 
When, however, they terminate in id), the v is short ; 
as, ttXvvsgj. 

6. T is long in all verbs in vpo) ; as, (pvpGi, ovpo), Kvpo, 
ddvpu), &c. But, when vpu) becomes vpsG), the v is 
short ; as, tcvpeoj, fxaprvpeo), &c. 

7. T before a is almost always long; as, Aiovvaog, 
Xpvaog, "Ap,(j>pvGog, Kap,6vorjg, &c. Except verbals 
in votg ; as, Xvatg, avvotg, &c. 

8. X is long in derivatives in vrr]p, vrrjg, and vrtg ; as, 
p,r]VVTrjp, p,rjvvTr]g, npeo6vT7]g, irpeobvTic 



262 FINAL SYLLABLES. 

9. T is long in adjectives in vrog derived from long 
verbal roots in vo) ; as, dSdfcpvrog, TToXvddupvrog, ar- 
pvrog, Sic. 

10. T is long in verbs in v%ia ; as, (3pvx^i rpvx^, and 
their compounds. 

11. T is long in the following words ; ipv^r], ipv^og, 
£[iipvxog, naraipvx^, &c. 

X. DOUBTFUL VOWEL BEFORE THE PENULTIMATE. 
The doubtful vowels before the penultimate are generally 
short. The exceptions to this rule are, however, many in 
number, and are best learned from a prosodial lexicon. 1 

XL FINAL SYLLABLES. 

I. Final a, av, ap, and ag. 

I. Final a is short ; as, rpdire^d, tvd, InTrord, r£rv(pd. 

Exceptions. 

1. But a pure is long; as, 'Adfjvad, (jaXid, OLKva; ex- 
cept verbals in rpia ; as, ^aXrpid ; and derivatives 
from adjectives in r\g ; as, d\i]Bud ; and also Upeid, 
K&deid, fiaoLXeid (" a queen") ; but (3aatXeid (" a King- 
dom") and fiaoiXeid (adj. fern. " royal") have the final 
vowel long. 

2. The Doric a for tj is long ; as, <pdfid, AlveCd ; and 
also the Doric genitive in a from nominatives in ag and 
r\g ; as, 'Avvi6dg, a ; 'ArpeLdrjg, a. 

3. Words in da and -da have the a long ; as, (SaalXivda, 
Arjdd, ^i\iaiQd, except anavdd and rjXtdd. 

4. Words ending in pa, not preceded by a diphthong ; 
as, tcdpd, Trrjpd, %apd, except aynvpd, yecpvpa, bXvpd, 
KspKvpd, and the perfect middle of verbs in po) ; as, 
die<f>dopd, irsTTOpd. 

5. Words ending in pa, with a consonant preceding ; as, 

1. They are given in full in the larger Prosody. 



FINAL SYLLABLES. 263 

ay pa, rrsTpa, afceorpd ; except acbodpd, anoXoTiivdpd, 
'Tavdypd. 

6. All feminines adjectives from masculines in og , as, 
dittaid ; except did, norvid, Id, and \ild. 

7. Duals in a, as \10vad ; and vocatives from nouns in 
ag ; as, Alvetd ; or poetical vocatives of the third de- 
clension ; as, Aaoddfjid, JloXvdd^d. 

8. The accusative in ea, from the genitive (third declen- 
sion) in ecog ; as, ILrjXed, from UrjXeug ; ftaoiXid, from 
fiaotXeug ; but, in Homeric Greek, UrjXrjd, from II77- 
Xrjog ; fiaotXrid, from (3aoiX?iog. 

9. Nouns in eta, from verbs in evoj ; as, npo(p7jT£ta, dov- 
Xeid. 

II. Final av is short ; as, dv, rcdpmdv, Aldv, ueXdv, nocq- 
odv, ervxpdv. 

Exceptions. 

1. Masculines in av are long ; as, Tcrav, nacdv. 

2. The neuter adjective ndv ; and hence the Attics ap- 
pear to have taken occasion to lengthen here and there 
the forms compounded with it ; as, airdv, eniTrdv, Trap- 
dndv. But Trdundv and irpondv are probably every- 
where decidedly short. • 

3. Adverbs in av ; as, Xidv, aydv, irepdv. On the con- 
trary, brdv and birordv follow the quantity of the sim- 
ple av. 

4. Accusatives of the first declension, from a long nom- 
inative ; as, (piXtdv, from (piXLd ; Alveidv, from Alvelag. 
But the accusative in av from a short nominative is 
short. ; as, norvidv, from noTvla ; rpdne^av, from rpd- 

TTE^d. 

5. The Doric genitive plural of the first declension in 
. av, formed by contraction, is likewise always long ; 

as, fxeXtav, vvficpdv, for \lzXi&v, vvp^dv. So, also, 



264 FINAL SYLLABLES. 

the Doric forms derived from those in 77, or produced 
by contraction ; as, rrot[idv, Uooeiddv, 'AXfcpdv. 

III. Final ap is short ; as, ovap, vsttrap, \id\idp. 

Exceptions. 

1. Monosyllables in ap are long ; as, Kdp, ipdp. 

2. The adverb yap is properly short ; but before ol and 
similar words it very often occurs long in epic lan- 
guage, through the force of the following breathing. 

IV. Final ag is long ; as, Alvetag, nag, lp,dg, (piXidg, tv- 
i})dg, rjfiag. 

Exceptions. 

1. Words of the third declension, not forming the genitive 
in avrog ; as, fisXag, \iiydg, Xdfinag, oeXdg, fcepag, &c 
But rdXdg has the final syllable long. 

2. The accusative plural of nouns and participles of the 
third declension ; as, Tirdvag, rv-nrovrag, noip,£vag, 
(ppevdg, &c. (but fiaoiXsdg, from fiaoiXsd). The accu- 
sative plural of the first declension, on the other hand, 
is always long. 

3. Adverbs in ag are short ; as, ireXdg, drpefidg, dyicag. 

4. Ac is short in the second person of the different tenses 
which terminate therein ; as, erey^ag, rey^eidg, olSdg, 
XeXoinag, necpvicdg. 

5. By a license of the Doric dialect, forms in ag, other- 
wise long, are occasionally shortened, and that, too, 
even in accusatives plural of the first declension ; 
\iolpdg (Theocrit. 2, 160); avrag (Id. 3, 2); vv/j,(pag 
(Id. 4, 29). 

II. Final i, iv, and ig. 
I. Final i is short ; as, Itpil, orl, fisXl, tvtttovgT, tc6 
&c. 



FINAL SYLLABLES. 265 

Exceptions. 

1 . But the abridged form upl (for tcpidr)) is long, together 
with the names of letters in i ; as, £-1, m, &c. 

2. The paragogic i, added by the Attic comic poets and 
orators to certain pronouns and adverbs, is likewise 
long ; as, ovrool, wvl, ovtojol, &c. So the similar i 
in the words 66Z, ravrl, SsvpZ, &c. 

3. Adverbs ending in i, and formed from nouns, have the 
i either long or short, but more commonly short ; such 
as a/ioxdl, dfiax^rl, Travdrjfii, iravopiXl, &7tovt]tl, &c. 
But those which refer to nations have the i always 
short j as, SkvOlotX, 'KpyoXiarl, Bap6apt<7rT, &c. 

II. Final iv is short ; as, tvixtovolv, eplv, ndXiv, ttoXZv, 
nptv, VLV, G(plV. 

Exceptions. 

1. Final iv, making Ivoc in the genitive, is long ; as, pr\y- 
filv, IktZv. 

2. Nouns that have two terminations for the nominative ; 
as, SeXcpZv (otherwise 6eX(pZg), d/trZv, plv, Zv, Xiv. 

3. The datives plural r\\iZv and v[iZv, though in several 
instances Sophocles makes rjfiTv and vfiiv, and the epic 
dialect has also d\i\dv, v\ipXv. 

III. Final ig is short ; as, dig, rpig, noXTg, rvpavvtg, &c. 

Exceptions. 

1. Monosyllabic nouns, and those which have two ter- 
minations for the nominative ; as, Zg, XZg, pZg, nZg, SeX- 
<pTtg, dnrZg. 

2. Dissyllables which make the penult of the genitive 
long; as, dipZg, (3aX6Zg, tcXrjZg, fcvrjfiZg, KprjnZg, opvZg, &c. 

3. Polysyllables with two short syllables before the last ; 
as, (3arpaxZg, KaXapZg, KavovZg, nXoKajiZg pcxpavZg, but 
not PacuXlg, iKsrig. 

4. Adjectives in tg, compounded from long forms, are like- 

Z 



266 FINAL SYLLABLES. 

wise long in the final syllable ; as, dXatprpxig, (3a6v- 

KV7][Ug, &c. 

III. Final v, vv, vp, and vg. 

I. Final v is short ; as, av, yovv, yXvicv, ddnpv, aarv. 

Exceptions. 

1. The third person singular of the imperfect and second 
aorist of verbs in v\ii ; as edv, e<bv ; also the second 
person of the imperative in one of its forms ; as, del- 
kvv, b\ivv. 

2. The names of the letters \iv, vv, and fictitious words ; 
as, v, ypv. 

II. Final vv is short ; as, ovv, iroXvv, fipadvv, frvyvvv. 

Exceptions. 

1. The accusative of nouns which have vg in the nom- 
inative ; as, IXvv, l%dvv, lo%vv, 6(ppvv, [ivv. 

2. Nouns that have two terminations for the nominative ; 
as, Qopitvv (otherwise Qopuvg) ; or vvog in the genitive ; 
as \ioacvv. 

3. The first person singular of the imperfect and the sec- 
ond aorist of verbs in v\ii ; as, e(f)vv, edvv, edeircvvv, 
e&vyvvv. 

4. Nvv, " now" is long ; but vvv, the enclitic, is for the 
most part short. It is long, however, on several oc- 
casions in tragedy, and always long in comedy. 1 

III. Final vp is long ; as, nvp, \idprvp. Yet, in the ob- 
lique cases, these make irvpog, rrvpi ; fidprvpog, fidprvpi. 

IV. Final vg is short ; as, (3a6vg, nopvg, nrjxvg, npeodvg, 
(3apvg, o^vg. 

Exceptions. 

1. Nouns in vg, which have vog in the genitive ; as, d%- 

Xvg, IXvg, ix&vg, vr\6vg, o<ppvg, rrXrjdvg. 

1. Ellendt, however, Lex. Soph. s. v., maintains that vvv enclitic is 
never long. 



METRE. 267 

2. Nouns which have two terminations in the nominative ; 
as, Qopicvg. 

3. Monosyllables ; as, [ivg, ovg. 

4. Terminations of verbs in v\ii ; as, deinvvq (second 
person singular present), deutvvg (participle), edeiic- 
vvg, &c. 



OF FEET. 

I. A foot, in metre, is composed of two or more syllables, and is 
either simple or compound. 

II. Of the simple feet four are of two, and eight of three syllables. 

III. There are sixteen compound feet, each of four syllables. 

Simple Feet. 



1 N «j 


' Pyrrhich . . . 
Spondee . . . 


two short syllables . 


as, i9eoc. 


°3, 


two long syllables . 


" fvxv- 


g JS ^ 


Iambus . . . . 


one short and one long 


" #ea. 


i ^ M 


.Trochee . ; . 


one long and one short 


" cufia. 




- Tribrach . . . 


three short . . . 


" TToTCefios. 


© 


Molossus . . . 


three long . . . 


" evx^fj- 


J3 03 


Dactyl . . . . 


one long and two short 


" aQfiura. 


°1 < 


Anapaest . . 


two short and one long 


" fiual%£v<;. 


Bacchius . . . 


one short and two long 


" avaaael. 




Antibacchius . 


two long and one short 


" auvTevud. 


W 


Amphibrach . . 


one long between two short " ■QakaoGa. 




* Amphimacer . . 


one short between two long " oeo-Trdr^c. 






Compound Feet. 






r Cboriambus . . 


Trochee and Iambus 


" <JU(ppOGVV7/. 




Antispast . . . 


Io.mbus and Trochee 


" UfJ.UpT7J/J.d. 




Ionic a majore 


Spondee and Pyrrhich 


" KOGfi^ropd. 


tS 


Ionic a minore 


Pyrrhich and Spondee 


" TrledvenTris. 


3 


Paeon primus . 


Trochee and Pyrrhich 


" aarpd/ldydc. 


= 


Paeon secundus 


Iambus and Pyrrhich . 


" uvu^Tog. 


m" 


Paeon tertius . 


Pyrrhich and Trochee 


" dvddfjiid. 


3 


Paeon quartus . . 


Pyrrhich and Iambus 


" •d-ebyevfjc;. 


£ < 


Epitritus primus . 


Iambus and Spondee 


" a/zaprw/l^. 


O 


Epitritus secundus 


Trochee and Spondee 


" dv6pb(pdvrfig. 


s 


Epitritus tertius . 


Spondee and Iambus 


" evpvGdevfjg. 


02 


Epitritus quartus 


Spondee and Trochee 


" "kCifrfirrjpd. 


Proceleusmaticus . 


Two Pyrrhichs . 


" "noktyXbq. 




Dispondaeus 


Two Spondees . . 


" GVv6oV?i£VGU. 




Diiambus . . 


Two Iambi . . . 


" eTveGTdrfjg. 




,_ Ditrochaeus 


Two Trochees . . 


" SvGTl'XV^d. 




Dochmius . . 


Antispast and long sylla 


ble " dfidpTfj/jLUTuv. 



268 DACTYLIC MEASURE. 

METRE. 

1. Metre, in its general sense, means an arrangement of syllables 
and feet in verse, according to certain rules ; and in this sense it applies 
not only to an entire verse, but to a part of a verse, or any number of 
verses. 

2. But a metre, in a specific sense, means a combination of two feet, 
and sometimes one foot only. 

3 There are nine principal metres ; viz., 1. Iambic ; 2. Trochaic ; 
3. Anapaestic ; 4. Dactylic ; 5. Choriambic ; 6. Antispastic ; 7. Ionic a 
majore ; 8. Ionic a minore ; 9. Paeonic. 

4. These names are derived from the feet which prevail in them. 
Each species of verse would seem originally to have been composed of 
those feet solely from which it derives its name ; and other feet, equal in 
time, were not admitted until afterward, and then only under certain re- 
strictions. 

5. It must be carefully noted, that two feet make a metre in the iam- 
bic, trochaic, and anapaestic measures, but that one foot constitutes a 
metre in all the rest. 

6. When a verse consists of one metre it is called monometer ; when 
it has two metres, dimeter ; three metres, trimeter ; four, tetrameter ; 
five, pentameter ; six, hexameter; seven, heptameter. 

7. From what has just been remarked, it follows that, in iambic, tro- 
chaic, and anapasstic verse, a monometer consists of two feet ; a dimeter 
of four ; a trimeter of six, &c. ; whereas, in all other kinds of verse, a 
monometer consists of one foot, a dimeter of two, a trimeter of three, &c. 

8. Verses are also denominated acatalectic when complete ; caialectic 
when they want a syllable at the end ; hrachycatalectic when they want 
two syllables at the end ; hyjpercatalectic when they have a syllable over 
at the end ; and acephalous when they want a syllable at the beginning. 

9. The last syllable of a verse is common, except in anapaestic and 
greater Ionic measure. 

DACTYLIC MEASURE. 1 

1. Dactylic hexameter, or heroic verse, is composed of six feet, the 
last of which must be a spondee, while the fifth is almost always a dac- 
tyl. The first four may be either dactyls or spondees, at the option of 
the poet. Thus, 

yaluv o[x | ov nal \ ttovtov op \ upel | d' ovpavo \ 6ev vvl;. 

2. Sometimes, in a solemn, majestic, or mournful description, the 
1. A more enlarged view of the Greek metres is given in the authors Greek Prosody, 



IAMBIC MEASURE. 269 

spondee takes the place of the dactyl in the fifth foot, and the line is 
then called a spondaic one ; as, 

Q k-xl | hev ke?ie \ al jhe At \ I <j>t?ie \ fivdfj \ adadal. 

3. A short syllable in the beginning of a foot is often made long in 
epic poetry. The reason is, that, as the first syllable of the foot was pro- 
nounced with the rising inflection of the voice in heroic verse, so by pro 
nouncing it, when short, with a sharper tone, it was brought nearer in 
sound to a long syllable, by which the deficiency in time was scarcely 
perceived. The following examples show a short csesural syllable made 
long at the beginning of a foot : 

vavXoxov \ ec Xl[iev \ a Kal | tic dsbg \ fjyE/io | vevev. 

6vv' axog \ arXri \ rbv 6 6' dp \ a Tpu | civ [ieve | aivov. 

II. PENTAMETER. 

1. This species of verse consists of two equal portions, each contain- 
ing two feet followed by a long syllable. 

2. The first two feet may be either dactyls or spondees, then comes 
a long syllable, to which succeed two dactyls, followed by another long 
syllable. Thus, 

epirvTJi | oc ksZt \at\\ rale eTCC \ nuvTa \ al. 
TdTifiu | ev 6' Epta j al \\ gkutcec a \ fjdovt \ civ. 

3. The pause always takes place after the long syllable in the middle 
of the verse, marked by the double line in the two examples just given. 

4. Another, but less correct 1 mode of scanning pentameters is as fol- 
lows : the first and second feet either a dactyl or spondee, the third al- 
ways a spondee, the fourth and fifth anapaests ; as, 

ovre nod \ uv dpsr J fig ov | te irukalc \ fiocvvrjc. j 

5. A dactylic hexameter and pentameter, alternately succeeding each 
other, form what is called elegiac verse. Thus, 

Kpfjval | al 2,16a | dig, ti 7re | (pEvydre ; | ttov tooov j v8up ; 
rig <pXd£ | diva \ ovg \\ eo^egev j afkl \ ov ; 

III. IAMBIC MEASURE. 1 

1. The only species of iambic verse which we will here consider is 
the trimeter acatalectic, called also senarius, from its containing six feet. 

2. In the trimeter the iambus is admitted into any one of the six 
places ; and, when all the feet are thus iambi, the verse is called a pure 
iambic one. 

1. Consult the larger Prosody. 
Z2 



270 ANAP^STIC MEASURE. 

3. A pure iambic line, however, is not of so frequent occurrence 
among the tragic writers as what is called a mixed one, namely, where 
other feet are admitted besides the iambus. 

4. The reason why other feet were allowed to enter appears to have 
been, not only to lessen the difficulty of composing, but in order to re- 
move the monotonous and unpleasing effect of a succession of iambi, 
and also to impart more dignity and elevation to the style. 

5. The feet admissible into this measure, besides the iambus, are the 
spondee, dactyl, anapaest, and tribrach. The rules for their admission 
are as follows : 

1. The spondee is allowed to enter into the uneven places, namely, 
the first, third, and fifth, and into no other. 

2. The dactyl is admitted into the first and third places only. 

3. The anapasst is admitted into the first place alone, except in the 
case of a proper name, when it may come into any place but tha 
last, provided the anapaest be all contained within the proper name. 

4. The tribrach may come into any place but the last. 

6. The following lines may serve to illustrate some of these laws. 

o ivaa | i nhelv || og Old | tirovg |] Kakov \ fxevog. \\ 
adfjg | GTevay \\ jxolg nal \ yoolg || tt1ovtZ£ \ erai. \\ 
/j.TJf' apor | ov avr [| olg yyv \ dvl \\ eval \ rtva. || 
tepfis | eyej || fisv Z?jv \ og- ol \\ 6e -f fj \ detiv. \\ 
rerdpr \ ov Itvtt \\ ojneddvr | uttsgt || ei7J:v \ narrip. || 
firjTpog | ^vyfjv |1 al nal \ Trarepa \\ Kara | Krdvsiv. || 

7. The double mark in these lines, after every two feet, indicates 
what is called a metre; it having been customary in reciting iambic 
verses to make a short pause after every second foot. Hence the name 
trimeter given to this species of lines, from their containing each three 
of these metres. 

IV. ANAP.ESTIC MEASURE. 

1. The most common species of anapaestic verse is the dimeter. In 
a system of legitimate dimeters each metre should end with a word, and 
the system should end with a catalectic verse called the paroemiac, pre- 
ceded by a monometer acatalectic. 

2. This metre admits indiscriminately the dactyl and spondee for the 
anapaest. But an anapaest ought not to follow a dactyl, to avoid too 
many short syllables occurring together. 

3. In the catalectic verse, or paroemiac, which closes a system, the 
catalectic syllable should be preceded by an anapsest. There are, how- 
ever, some verses in which it is joined to a spondee. 



ANAPAESTIC MEASURE. 271 

4. The last syllable of a verse in this metre, with the exception of the 
paroemiac, is not common, but subject to the same laws of quantity as if 
it was found in any other part of the verse. 

5. The following is a system of anapaestic dimeters, closing with a 
paroemiac : 

el yap | /i' vtto yr/v, \\ vlpQlv \ -f aldov |j 
tov veKpo [ deypovog || elg u,7rep | dvrov \\ . 
rdprapov | 7JKev, \\ decfiolg \ ukvTolg \\ 
ay plug \ 7rs/\.aadg, \\ tig firj \ re deog, [| 
{lyre rig | aXkog \\ rolcd' eire \ yfjdel. \\ 
vvv 6' aid | eplov \\ /clvvy/u.' | 5 raTidg || 
£X0polg | emxapr \\ a. ttekovQ j a. 



APPENDIX. 



EXCURSUS A. 

GREEK ALPHABET. 

1. According to tradition, Cadmus brought sixteen letters from Phoe- 
nicia into Greece, to which Palamedes, at a subsequent period, added 
four more, namely, ■&, $, <p, x ; and Simonides, at a still later day, in- 
creased this number by other four, £ r], i/>, d. 

2. The meaning of this tradition evidently is, that the Phoenician al- 
phabet was introduced into different parts of Greece in a more or less 
perfect shape ; that some tribes received all the letters, while others 
were content with sixteen ; that these last-mentioned tribes, however, 
gradually increased the number of alphabetical characters, by borrowing, 
at two different epochs, certain letters previously used in the more per- 
fect systems of other Grecian communities. 

3. The old sixteen, or primitive Cadmean letters, are supposed to 
have been the following, the v being assigned to its true place as the 
representative of the digamma, and being indicated by the old sign of 
the digamma, namely, F. 

ABTAEFIKAMNOnPST. 

4. A change, however, subsequently took place as regarded the in- 
troduction of T, which was formed from the Fav, or digamma, by split- 
ting its upper part. This new letter was then placed after the T, while 
the F itself was omitted. 

5. The Ionians first adopted all the twenty-four letters, and of them 
first the Samians, from whom they were received by the Athenians ; but 
it was not till after the Peloponnesian War, in the archonship of Eucli- 
des (B.C. 403), that they were used in public acts. Hence the twenty- 
four letters are called 'Iuviku ypdfj.fj.aTa, and the old sixteen 'Attiko. 
/pufifiaTa. 

6. In the most ancient times, according to Pausanias (5, 25), the 
Greeks, like the Orientals, wrote from right to left. They soon began, 
however, to write the first line from the left to the right, in the second 
from the right to the left, and so on alternately. This was called pov- 



274 APPENDIX. 

crpo(j>7]d6v, from its resembling the mode in which the ox turns with the 
plough. So the laws of Solon were written. But, as early as the time 
of Herodotus, it was the established custom to write from left to right. 



EXCURSUS B. 

DIGAMMA. 1 

1. The whole subject of the digamma rests on the following remark- 
able fact. A certain number of words beginning with a vowel, especially 
the pronoun ov, ol, e, and also sldo, eoina, e'nveZv, aval;, T/Uoc, olvog, 
olnog, gpyov, laog, e/iacTog, with their derivatives, have in Homer the 
hiatus so often before them, that, leaving these words out of the account, 
the hiatus, which is now so frequent in Homer, becomes extremely rare, 
and, in most of the remaining cases, can be easily and naturally accounted 
for. These same words have also, in comparison with others, an apos- 
trophe very seldom before them ; and, moreover, the immediately prece- 
ding long vowels and diphthongs are far less frequently rendered short 
than before other words. 

2. From an attentive examination of the subject, the illustrious Bent- 
ley was led to conclude, that the words before which these deviations 
from the usual rules of prosody took place, although beginning with a 
vowel, must have been pronounced at least, if not written, as if begin- 
ning with a consonant. He recollected that some ancient grammarians 
mentioned a letter as more particularly used by the JEolians or most an- 
cient Greeks ; and that its existence might be traced in the changes 
which some Latin words, derived from the ^Eolic Greek, had undergone ; 
as, olvog, vinum ; Ig, vis ; olicog, vicus ; rjp, ver. The letter alluded to, 
which, from its form, has the name of digamma or double gamma (F), is 
yet to be seen in some ancient inscriptions and on coins ; and it supplies 
the data for resolving the cases of metrical difficulty, where the length- 
ening of a short syllable uniformly takes place before particular words. 

3. Let us examine some of the instances which are found at the very 
opening of the Iliad. 'Arpeifyg re uvat; avdpuv (v. 7) ; ' kyajj.sjj.vovi. 
rjvdavE -&V/J.U) (v. 24) ; 'Att6?i?mvc uvaKTi (v. 36) ; 6 6' f/ie vvktI koinug 
{v. 47) ; d-apor/aag p.ala, eiize (v. 85). In all these cases, according to 
the practice of the language in the days of Attic purity, the short vowel 
ou°"ht to have been elided before uvat;, fyvdave, &c. But if we write 
Tavat;, Yrjvdave, &c, or fancy the words pronounced wavaf, wyvdave, 
wswoiKwg, w££7re, &c, the difficulty will in a great degree disappear. 

1. Buttmann, Ausf. G : Sprachl. p 2~.— BuUmaniL's Larger Gr. Gr. p 28, Rob- 
insorc's irand. — Maltby's Greek Gradus, p. xi., seq. 



APPENDIX. 275 

EXCURSUS C. 

ACCENTS. 

1. In every polysyllabic word, one syllable is to be regarded as the 
fundamental or radical syllable, or, in other words, that which contains 
the principal idea of the word. The rest, on the contrary, which are 
prefixed or appended to the fundamental syllable in the formation of 
words, are, in respect to the idea, of less weight. 

2. The ascendant importance of the fundamental syllable of a word is, 
in every independent language, indicated by a sharpened elevation of the 
voice in its pronunciation ; as, for example, du in duty, or set in beset. 

3. This elevation of the voice in pronouncing one syllable of a word 
is called the tone or accent {jcpooudia, accentus), which can occur only 
once in each word, and of itself is one and the same in all words, namely, 
the acute or elevated accent (7rpoa(p6ia b^ela, accentus acutus). As a 
sign for this, use is made of a stroke from right to left (') ; as, for exam- 
ple, loyoc. 

4. In comparison with the accented or elevated syllable, all syllables 
of a word which are not accented must be spoken with a depressed or 
unelevated accent (Tzpooudia fiapela, accentus gravis). This depressed 
or grave accent is represented by an opposite sign, namely, a stroke from 
left to right f) ; so that \6yoc was in fact \6ybc. But, because every 
syllable of a word which has not the acute accent is necessarily to be 
spoken with the depressed tone, the sign for the grave is not used, but 
these syllables remain unmarked. 

5. As an indication of the proper grave, therefore, is unnecessary, its 
sign is used for another purpose, namely, to mark what is called the 
softened acute at the final syllable of words in a continued discourse, 
and of which mention will presently be made. 

6. If two vowels, the first of which has the acute, the second the 
grave, are united into one sound, this long sound receives a sign, which 
is formed by the union of those two, namely, (' s ) or O ; for which, how- 
ever, a twisted line (~) is more conveniently used, 1 indicating that the 
accent is to be lengthened in the pronunciation (izpoocpdia Trepicirofievr), 
accentus circumflexus) ; as, for example, df/Xoc for SesXoc, cu[ia for abb/ia. 

Position of the Accents. 
In order to accentuate a Greek word correctly, it is necessary, 1. to 
determine the syllable on which the- accent rests; and, 2. to know the 
sign by which, according to the nature of that and the remaining sylla- 

1. In the Porsonian type a semicircular mark is employed ; as, <ju>\ia. 



276 APPENDIX. 

bles of the word, the accent is to be indicated. Concerning these two 
points, we shall here briefly assign what admits of accurate definition. 

I. Determination of the accented syllable. 

1. A Greek word can have its tone or accent only on one of the last 
three syllables. 

2. In simple radical words (that is, those which are formed with a 
definite termination from an existing root, and not derived from a word 
already formed) the accent rests on the radical syllable ; thus, root "key, 
whence Myio, " I say ;" "ket-tg, "expression;" koyog, "speech." 

3. In words which are derived from others, either by a prefix or an 
appended termination, the accent usually rests on the supplemental part 
(because this, as the sign of distinction from the radical word, defines 
the idea) ; thus, from koyog is derived akoyog, " speechless ;" from /cap- 
nog, "fruit," come a/cap7roc, "fruitless " and evuapirog, "fruitful;" 
from Xeyu are derived kenrog, "said" and ke/creog, " to be said;" from 
&r)p, " an animal," is derived tinpiov, " a wild beast." 

4. The nature of the final syllable has a decisive influence on the po- 
sition of the accent ; namely, if the final syllable of a word be long by 
nature, the accent cannot lie farther towards the beginning of the word 
than on the penultimate syllable. For a long syllable being equal to two 
short ones, if the accent were placed on the antepenult when the last 
syllable is long by nature, it would be placed, in fact, four places back 
from the end, whereas it can never go farther back than three. 

The following cases, however, are to be noted as exceptions from 
this last rule. 

1. The 6) which the Attic and Ionic dialects make use of in declen- 
sion for the o of the other dialects has no iu luence on the posi- 
tion of the accent. It is right, therefore, to accentuate virepTtke- 
ug (Attic and Ionic for virepTrXeog) ; pivotcepiog, " a rhinoceros ;" 
dwdjieog, " of power ;" 'A.TpEidsu f " of Atrides." 

2. The same exception holds good of the syllables at and oc, as ter- 
minations in declension and conjugation. Hence we properly 
accentuate rpdne^ai, " tables ;" Myerai, " it is said ;" ekafoc, 
"stags." The termination of the third person singular of the 
optative, however, again forms an exception to this, and, being 
the result of contraction, is long as regards the accent. We are 
therefore to accentuate tutyepoi, not enfyepoi, from £K<j>epo) ; vlkjj- 
rrai, not vinnoai, as the optative of viicda). 1 

1. From these fundamental rules numerous exceptions are found in Greek, wnich 
are best learned from actual reading and a good lexicon. 



APPENDIX. 277 

5. Some small words are so unimportant of themselves, that, in dis- 
course, they almost unite their sound with the following word, and, there- 
fore, remain unaccented. These are the forms 6, rj, ol, at, of the article, 
besides the prepositions elg or eg, ev or elv, en or ef ; the conjunctions 
el, &?, and the negative ov, ovk, ovx- These are called urova, " tone- 
less," or 7rpoK?iiTiKu, '* proclitic." Some of them, on a change of signi- 
fication or position, receive the acute, namely, 1. the adduced forms of 
the article, when used as pronouns ; 2. &g, when it either stands for ov- 
To>g, " thus,'''' " so," or in the signification " as" or " like" is placed after 
the chief word ; as, nanol tog, " as cowards" or " coward-like ; 3. ov or 
ovk, when it directly denies, without an additional word, like the Eng- 
lish " no," or is placed after the word which it negatives. 

II. Sign of the accent according to the nature of the syllables-. 
If the syllable on which the tone rests is known, the question then is, 
with what sign it is to be accented. Concerning this the following rules 
obtain : 

1. The acute can stand on each of the last three syllables ; as, rca/cog, 
"bad;" iroXig, "a city;" uvdpvrzog, "a man." But it can stand on 
the third syllable from the end only when the last syllable is short by na- 
ture ; thus, av0p6irov, avdpuKG), avOpuvcoig, although the nominative is 
marked uvdpuirog.* 

2. The circumflex can only stand on a syllable long by nature, and 
only on the final or penultimate syllable, but never on the penultimate 
unless the final syllable is short by nature ; thus, TlepcK^g , " Pericles ;" 
KaKov, "of evil;" X&P 0C i "space;" 2,eiize, "leave." On the contrary, 
'Kti'Ketv, " to leave ;" yet Xelrpcu, x&poi, according to rule 2, § 4 of the 
previous head. J ' 

3. The mark properly belonging to the grave accent appears only on 
the last syllable of words standing in a continued discourse, as a sign of 
the softened tone of the acute. Thus, avrjp, " a man ;" ayadog, "brave ;" 
but in connected discourse, avrjp ayadog ov (pevyec, " a brave man fleeth 
not aviay." 

4. The intimate connexion of discourse, which would be interrupted 
by the sharpened pronunciation of the acute on the final syllable of a 
word, alone renders necessary the transition of the acute into the grave. 
This change, therefore, must not take place before one of the greater 
signs of interpunction (period and colon) ; nor even before a comma, 
when it indicates a really distinct member of a proposition. But we 

1. For the double exception to the rule, that the acute can stand on the antepenult 
Ip case only of a short final syllable, see rule 2, $4 of the previous head. 
Aa 



278 APPENDIX. 

also use the comma in assigning nearer definitions, and predicates, before 
relatives and before expositive or intentional particles, where evidently 
the internal connexion of the discourse must not be interrupted, and in 
this case, in Greek, the sign of the acute must not be placed on the final 
syllable before the comma. Thus, it is proper to write, Tide, r/v XPW a - 
ra no?ika sxv rig ; and. in like manner, ol jllsv ayadoi, ol 6e kclkol, be- 
cause here is a perceptible caesura in the discourse ; but irarr/p, og idutce, 
and eXsye tto1?m, d>g, k. t. 2,., because here no abrupt separation of the 
single members of the proposition occurs. 

5. If the third syllable from the end is accented, it always possesses 
the acute. 

6. If the final syllable is accented, it always bears the acute (or, in 
continued discourse, the grave), except when it arises by contraction, or 
forms the genitive and dative of the first two declensions, or belongs, as 
the termination, to adverbs in ug. Thus, fiaailevg, " a king," but /?a- 
oiTlei (contracted from (SaacXel) ; natcog, naur}, kclkov, kclkovq, but naKov, 
Kauris, KdKov, kuk€), Kaicy, ttantiv, KanoZg (as genitive and dative of the 
first two declensions) ; tcatc&g, an adverb. 

7. Every dissyllabic word whose penult is long by nature, and followed 
by a short final syllable, is marked with a circumflex on the penult ; as, 
XPW&, xtip°?i T£ tX°C > Ksiadat. 

8. Words have denominations according to the position of the accent. 
If the final syllable bears the acute, the word is called an oxytone (btjv- 
rovov), as, for example, /ca/cof ; if the circumflex, a perispome (TrepiaTru- 
fievov), as, tcoieZv ; if the final syllable is unaccented, the word is a bar- 
yton ((3apvTOvov). If the accent rests on the penult as an acute, the 
word is paroxyton (rrapotjvTovov), as, vbjiog ; if as a circumflex, proper- 
ispome (TTpoTCEptOTTUjiEvov), as, ofi/na ; and, lastly, if the acute stands on 
the third syllable from the end, the word is proparoxytone {np(mapot;v- 
rovov), as, uvdpoirog. 

III. Change of Accents. 
1. If a word possessing an accent experiences such a change, by de- 
clension, or conjugation, or composition, that either the number or meas- 
ure of its syllables is increased, the accent also is usually changed. 
These changes of the accent are of a threefold kind, namely : 

1. The accent remains on the syllable on which it stands, but is itself 
altered, and becomes, 

(A.) An acute from a circumflex ; as, Gufiarog, from otjfia ; %6pov f 

from x6>P°C '■> KELfisda, from KEladat. 
(B.) A circumflex from an acute ; as, (pevyE, from (psvycj. 



APPENDIX. 279 

2. The accent advances towards the end of a word, 

(A.) If the word is increased by the annexation of syllables, so that 
the original accented syllable has more than two syllables between 
it and the end of the word ; as, avdpuiroiGi, from avdpoiroc ; (3e- 
Xeeggl, from /3e/loc ; tuvovtuv, from ttIvcj ; kareXXeadi]v, from 
gtekKu. 

(B.) If the word receives a termination which always or usually 
has the accent ; as, rsrvfuc, rervtyevai, rvrcelc, TeTV/xjievog, all 
formed from tvttto) ; &7]p6c, from i9?7p ; ttioc, from nig, &c. 

(C.) If, in the change of a word, the final syllable, which was be- 
fore short, becomes long ; as, avdpuirov, from avdpu7rog ; erepov, 
from srspoc ; Trpay/j-druv, from irpay/Lta. 
3. The accent is drawn back towards the beginning of a word. This 
takes place, 

(A.) If the word receives additions at the beginning, or if the cause 
is removed which held the accent on the penult ; as, etvktov, 
etvttte, from tvtttcj ; iraidsvs, from 7ratSsvo) ; d(pt?iog, from tylXoc ; 
cvvodoc, from 6S6c. 

(B.) If, in dissyllabic words, the final syllable, which should bear 
the accent, is dropped on account of a succeeding vowel ; as, <j>7/(i' 
eyu for <f>rj/j,l ; and TtoTCk 1 ewadov for itoKka ; delv' er2,nv for 
Secvd. 

But prepositions and particles, when the accented final vowel is 
dropped, remain unaccented ; as, £71^ avrov for eirl ; nap' ejxol 
for napa, ; aXk' eyu for aXka ; ov6' okiyov for ovds. 

IV. Recession of the accent to a preceding word. 

1. Several small words unite themselves so closely, in respect to 
sense, with the preceding word, that they must be blended with it, as it 
were, in pronunciation. For this reason they throw back their accent 
on the preceding word, and hence derive the name of enclitics (fiopca 
ey/cXiTiKu). 

2. Such enclitics are : the indefinite pronoun tic, tI, through all the 
cases ; the oblique cases of the personal pronouns, /uov or fj.ev, [ioi, fie, 
gov or gev, goI, ge, ov or £0, and eQev, ol, e, fj.lv, vlv, G(pe, ccpoe, gcjhjIv, 
G(J)euv, G(f>LGt or G(j>LGtv, and Gfylv, Vfeac, G<j>ea ; together with the pres- 
ent indicative of etui and (prj/il (except the second person singular sic or 
el, "thou art;" frjc, " thou sayst) ;" and, lastly, the adverbs end parti- 
cles 7TCJC, 7T(5, TTOl, irfj, 7T0V, TCodl, TToOeV, TCOTE, TE, T0C, ye, KE (OX KEv), 

•&fjv, vv (or vvv), nEp, pa. 

3. All these words throw back their accent, as acute, on the last syl 



280 APPENDIX. 

lable of the preceding word ; but the accentuation of that preceding word 
decides whether this accent must be expressed or not. Concerning this 
point the following rules must be observed : 

(A.) If the preceding word is accented on the last syllable, or is 
marked with the acute on the penult, the enclitic loses its accent 
without farther change of the preceding word ; yet it is evident 
that the grave becomes an acute, because, properly, the enclitic 
unites itself immediately to the preceding word, and the accent 
syllable is therefore no longer to be considered as standing at the 
end of a word. Thus, we write avrjp rig (as if it were avrjprig) ; 
ayadog re Krikog re ; ftXu ae ; fiadnruv tlvcjv, uvdpa re, ty'Ckog 

[10V. 

But, in the last case, when the preceding word has an acute on the 
penult, dissyllabic enclitics retain their proper accent ; as, fjv A6- 
yog rrore evavriog atyiaiv. 

(B.) If the preceding word is accented with a circumflex on the pe- 
nult, or an acute on the antepenult, the accent, thrown back, 
from the enclitic, stands as an acute on the final syllable ; as, 
uvdpcjTrSg earc "d-vrjTog ; 6 Kpolaog ttote eke^ev. 

If several enclitics follow one another, the preceding always takes 
the accent of the succeeding, and the last only remains unac- 
cented ; as, el rig riva (prjai [iol Trapelvai. 

(C.) The enclitic retains its accent (1.) in personal pronouns after 
a preposition ; as, nspl gov, rrapa aoi, Trpog ae ; and, in this case, 
the longer forms of the pronoun of the first person, e/iov, e/noi, 
kfie, must always be used ; as, ef euov (not e/c jiov) ; hv kfioi (not 
iv iio'C). (2.) In the verb eari (which then draws back its accent 
to the root), when it is used in the emphatic signification " there, 
is" " there exists" " it is situated," or else stands followed by 
an infinitive, for e^ean, u it is possible ," " it is permitted," "one 
can ;" as, for example, Qebg eartv, " there is a God ;" ecriv ov- 
rcog, " it is so situated ;" earcv ISelv, " one can see." 

4. From the enclitics adduced under § 2 must yet be distinguished 
the particles 6e and #e or -&ev, which entirely lose their independence, 
and become incorporated with the preceding word. Strictly considered, 
in annexing these particles to a word, the given rules of inclination ought 
also to be observed. On the contrary, -&e or -&ev is usually regarded as 
any other appended termination ; and thus we write olnodev, not olnodev 
(from uinog). In the particle 6e, however, two cases are to be distin- 
guished ; thus, if it is annexed to forms of nouns, it has the same influ- 
ence as every other enclitic, and hence we write olicovde (from olnog), 



APPENDIX. 



281 



'Aldose (from "Aig), do/uovde (from do/iog). But if it is annexed to de- 
monstrative pronouns, the accent of the principal word advances towards 
that of the particle, and passes into the syllable immediately before <5e ; 
as, togogSe (from roGog), tologSe (from rolog). And this accent thus 
retains itself regularly through all the cases and forms ; consequently we 
write TOG?jde, roGoide, roGovgde ; but togovSe, toguSs, TOGyde, roGotgde. 



EXCURSUS D. 

DIALECTS. 

1. Of the primitive language of the Greeks the most traces are left to 
us in their epic poems, the oldest monuments of the language of this 
people. The peculiar mode of speech observed in these is called the 
epic dialect. Its basis formed the old national language of the Greeks, 
which the poet, however, for his own purpose, variously modified and 
enriched. Its principal characteristic is a rhythmical harmony and a 
powerful fulness of tone. 

2. The epic dialect is expressed the most purely and in a perfect form 
in the poems of Homer and Hesiod. The rest formed themselves ac- 
cording to the model of these two, particularly of Homer. The most 
eminent of them are, Theognis and the other gnomic poets, Apollonius 
of Rhodes, the author of the poems extant under the names of Orpheus, 
Quintus Smyrnaeus, and Nonnus. 

3. Since the epic language was derived from the stores of the general 
national language, and variously enriched by the poet himself; since, 
moreover, the dialect found in the oldest epic remained in after times 
appropriated to this species of poetry, and thus was continually advanced 
in civilization and culture by new admixtures ; it is natural, therefore, 
that it should not appear as a complete and finished whole, but should 
betray in its single parts many deviations and irregularities. 

4. If the basis of the epic is the old primitive language of the Greeks, 
and the primitive contains all the germes of the subsequent development 
of a language, we may easily conceive how this dialect should evince 
divers traces of all the peculiarities whieh afterward were individually 
cultivated and retained in the single dialects. Thus, in epic occur JEo- 
lisms, Dorisms, Atticisms, and the like, as fundamental peculiarities of 
the Greek language. But it is erroneous to regard the epic language, 
on that account, as a mixture of all the dialects ; as, on the other hand, 
it is wrong to confound it with the Ionic, from the circumstance of its 
having many fundamental peculiarities in common with that dialect 

Aa2 



282 APPENDIX. 

The same obtains of iEolisms, Dorisms, Ionisms, and Atticisms in all 
cases where reference is made to them by grammarians and commenta- 
tors. 

5. The Hellenes, who migrated through Thrace into the country after- 
ward called Hellas, were divided into several tribes, whereof two, the 
Dorians and lonians, chiefly extended themselves. Each of these tribes 
cultivated an independent and peculiar character in language, as well as 
in manners and mode of life, and after their names we denominate the 
two principal dialects the Doric and Ionic. 

6. The Dorians, the most powerful of the Hellenic tribes, preserved 
their dialect, which was widely diffused as the common language in 
Hellas proper and the colonies, pure from foreign intermixture, but did 
little for the particular advancement of their language. Hence the Do- 
ric dialect exhibits the most harshness in its forms of words, and a flat- 
ness of tone from the frequent use of the dull sound A, a peculiarity 
termed in Greek rc'kareiaGiioc. Besides this dialect, the Molic also was 
formed according to the model of antiquity, and had many peculiarities 
in common with the Doric, whence it was considered as a refined col- 
lateral form of the same, cultivated particularly for the use of the poets. 

7. The Doric and .'Eolic dialects became and continued to be the lan- 
guage of lyric and bucolic poetry. The character of the Doric is most 
purely expressed in the odes of Pindar ; while those of Alcaeus, Sappho, 
and Corinna exhibit rather the iEolic mode. The Doric is purer in the 
Idyls of Theocritus. In the lyric parts of the Attic tragedies also an ap- 
proach to the sound of the Doric dialect has been preserved. Fragments 
of the Pythagorean philosophy furnish the only specimens of Doric prose. 

8. Besides these, several dialects sprung up in the mouth of the peo- 
ple as individual varieties of the generally-diffused Doric dialect. But 
their peculiar character is, for the most part, known only from insulated 
expressions and short sentences, which are adduced in historians and 
comic poets. The most celebrated and extensive of them are the Laco- 
nian, Boeotian, and Thessalian dialects, and, next, to these, the Sicilian. 

9. The lonians, driven from their settlements by the Dorians, betook 
themselves principally to Attica, and, when that barren country was un- 
able to support the multitude of inhabitants, to the opposite coast of 
Asia. Under the mild climate of Lesser Asia, the form of their language 
became mild and soft, and nearly allied to the epic. Thus was devel- 
oped the Ionic dialect, the principal characteristic of which is a softness 
of expression, acquired from the frequency of vowels and the solution of 
harsh syllables by interposed sounds. Herodotus and Hippocrates wrote 
in this dialect. 

10. The numerous peculiarities common to the Ionic with the epic 



APPENDIX. 283 

dialect have occasioned the latter also to be denominated Ionic ; although 
with this distinction, that the appellation of Old Ionic is given to the epic, 
but to the Ionic that of New Ionic. 

11. The language of the Ionians who remained behind in Attica pro- 
ceeded differently in its formation ; and hence arose a new dialect, the 
Attic, which observed an intermediate course between the Doric harsh- 
ness and Ionic softness, adopting a perfect rotundity in its forms of 
words, and the greatest pliancy in their construction. The political con- 
sequence and the high pitch of intellectual culture to which Athens ar- 
rived, gave a wide circulation to this dialect, and the considerable num- 
ber of eminent writings which are composed in it, and have been pre- 
served, determine it for the groundwork in the study of the Greek lan- 
guage. 

12. The most celebrated works written in the flourishing period of 
the Attic language and culture are, the historical books of Thucydides, 
the historical and philosophical writings of Xenophon, the philosophical 
books of Plato, and the orations of Demosthenes, JEschines, Lysias, 
Isocrates, &c, besides the tragedies of JEschylus, Sophocles, and Eu- 
ripides, and the comedies of Aristophanes. 

13. That peculiarity which the single Grecian states had preserved in 
language and manners disappeared with the general decline of their 
freedom. Athens, however, for a long time continued the chief seat of 
liberal information ; and the Attic dialect, as the purest and most widely 
diffused, became the court language of the now ruling Macedonians, and, 
by degrees, the general language of writing and the people. Hence it 
necessarily followed, that much of the old peculiarity of this dialect was 
sacrificed, and many innovations were introduced in expression and in- 
flexion. This language, formed on the basis of the Attic dialect, is 
comprehended under the name of the common dialect. The authors of 
this period, however, endeavoured to exhibit the Attic dialect pure and 
uncorrupted, according to the early models, although many peculiarities 
of more modern times are interspersed throughout their writings. Hence 
their style has received the appellation of the later Attic. 

14. Writers of this class are, Aristotle, Theophrastus, Pausanias, 
Apollodorus, Polybius, Diodorus, Plutarch, Strabo, Dionysius of Hali- 
carnassus, T jMM OT, j ^Ghan^ Arrian, &c. 

15. In Macedonia the Greek language was mingled with much for- 
eign alloy ; arm, thus corrupted, it spread itself, with the extension of 
the Macedonian empire, over other barbaric nations. Hence arose what 
may be denominated the Macedonic dialect. 

16. Alexandrea was a colony of liberal information under the Mace- 
donian rulers. There a circle of learned men assembled together, and 



284 APPENDIX. 

made it their chief study to preserve the purity of the genuine Attic dia- 
lect by rejecting all modern accessions, although their style also fell 
short of the ancient models. But the Greek language underwent a pe- 
culiar reformation by the translators of the Old and the authors of the 
New Testament, who designated by Greek expressions things of orien- 
tal conception and application. As this style occurs only in the Scrip- 
tures and some Christian writers, it has been called the ecclesiastical di- 
alect, while others have preferred the epithet of Hellenistic. 1 

17. By degrees, the old Greek language, under the influence of various 
causes, so far degenerated in the mouth of the people, and was deformed 
by so much heterogeneous admixture, that it gave rise to the new Greek, 
which has almost entirely exchanged the primitive character of the old 
for that of the more modern tongues, and still continues, in ancient 
Greece, as the language of the country. 

1. From the Greek kWrjvi^uv, whence conies iXXrivurdjs, as referring to one who 
speaks after the Greek manner, and, in the present case, to an Oriental trying to 
speak Greek. 



THE END. 



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